HUBERT FEIGLSTORFER

# MATERIAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING AND CRAFT TRADITIONS

### Hubert Feiglstorfer

# MATERIAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING AND CRAFT TRADITIONS

### ÖSTERREICHISCHE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN PHILOSOPHISCH-HISTORISCHE KLASSE DENKSCHRIFTEN, 530. BAND

Veröffentlichungen zur Sozialanthropologie Band 26

# MATERIAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING AND CRAFT TRADITIONS

# ඌඉൺඍංൺඅඉඋඈඋൺආආൾ±ൻඎංඅൽංඇආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ±ඇൺඍඎඋൺඅൾඇඏංඋඈඇආൾඇඍ

A HIMALAYAN CASE STUDY

Hubert Feiglstorfer

Angenommen durch die Publikationskommission der philosophischhistorischen Klasse der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Accepted by the publication committee of the Division of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Austrian Academy of Sciences by:

Michael Alram, Andre Gingrich, Hermann Hunger, Sigrid Jalkotzy-Deger, Renate Pillinger, Franz Rainer, Oliver Jens Schmitt, Danuta Shanzer, Peter Wiesinger, Waldemar Zacharasiewicz

> Veröffentlicht mit Unterstützung des Austrian Science Fund (FWF): PUB 763-Z

Open Access: Wo nicht anders festgehalten, ist diese Publikation lizenziert unter der Creative Commons Lizenz Namensnennung 4.0 Open access: Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Front cover: Uru Katsel Temple in Tibet. Women creating a shiny surface on top of the clay plaster by burnishing with round stones (Hubert Feiglstorfer).

> Diese Publikation wurde einem anonymen, internationalen Begutachtungsverfahren unterzogen.

This publication was subject to international and anonymous peer review. Peer review is an essential part of the Austrian Academy of Sciences Press evaluation process. Before any book can be accepted for publication, it is assessed by international specialists and ultimately must be approved by the Austrian Academy of Sciences Publication Committee.

Die verwendete Papiersorte in dieser Publikation ist DIN EN ISO 9706 zertifiziert und erfüllt die Voraussetzung für eine dauerhafte Archivierung von schriftlichem Kulturgut.

The paper used in this publication is DIN EN ISO 9706 certified and meets the requirements for permanent archiving of written cultural property.

> Bestimmte Rechte vorbehalten. Some rights reserved. Copyright © Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Austrian Academy of Sciences Wien/Vienna 2022 ISBN 978-3-7001-8218-4 Layout: Institute for Social Anthropology at the Autrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. Printed: Prime Rate, Budapest https://epub.oeaw.ac.at/8218-4 https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at Made in Europe

### CONTENTS



6


7

Contents


### ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is very grateful to a long list of institutions and individuals, who have supported his ZRUNDWGL൵HUHQWVWDJHVDQGZKRKDYHEHOLHYHGLQLWVVXFFHVV7KHDXWKRUVLQFHUHO\KRSHVWKHUHLV no one he forgot to mention. His thanks go to the following<sup>1</sup> :

Tsering Gyalpo (former director of the Religious Department of the Tibetan Academy of Social 6FLHQFHV7\$66LQ/KDVDZKRSDVVHGDZD\LQIRUVFLHQWL¿FVXSSRUW'U&KULVWLDQ-DKRGD ,6\$g\$:DQG'U\*XQWUDP+D]RG,6\$g\$:IRUVFLHQWL¿FVXSSRUWRQ7LEHWDQGIRUUHYLHZRI WKHWH[WRQ:HVW7LEHWDQDQG&HQWUDO7LEHWDQKLVWRU\RI&KDSWHU,UHVSHFWLYHO\3URI)UDQ]2WWQHU (IAG / BOKU) for mineral analysis supervision and review of Chapter III and the geology sec-WLRQRI&KDSWHU,9'U'RULVgVWHUUHLFKHU%2.8IRUUHYLHZRI&KDSWHU,,,3URI(ULFK/HKQHU 78:IRUVFLHQWL¿FVXSSRUWDQGUHYLHZRIWKH3UHOLPLQDULHV0DJ7KRPDV+RIPDQQ\*%\$IRU SURYLGLQJPDSVRIWKHUHVHDUFKDUHD'U%DUEDUD\*|WVFK,6\$g\$:IRUVFLHQWL¿FVXSSRUW0DJ Mathias Fermer (IKGA / ÖAW) and Tsering Drongshar (IKGA / ISA / ÖAW) for proof reading RIVHOHFWHG7LEHWDQWHUPV7VHULQJ'URQJVKDUDQG'U&DOXP%ODLNLH,6\$g\$:IRUVFLHQWL¿F VXSSRUW0\$UFK5DQGROSK/DQJHQEDFKZKRLQVSLUHGPHWRUHVHDUFKFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQV LQ&KDSWHU,9'U.DULQ:ULHVQLJ,\$\*%2.8IRUPLQHUDODQDO\VLVVXSSRUW5RODQG0HLQJDVW IRUFRQVXOWDWLRQLQFOD\WHFKQLFDOPDWWHUV'U&KULVWLDQH.DODQWDUL ,6\$g\$: IRU VFLHQWL¿F VXSSRUWRQ7LEHWDQDUW+HOHQH3IDO]6FKZLQJHQVFKO|JO,\$\*%2.8IRUWDNLQJSLFWXUHVRIFOD\ VDPSOHV3URI0RQLND.ULHFKEDXP%2.8DQG3URI0DULDQQH.RKOHU6FKQHLGHU%2.8IRU VFLHQWL¿FVXSSRUWLQ7LEHWDQERWDQ\DQGDUFKDHRERWDQ\%\$-DNRE\*UHGOHU%2.8'U0DUWLQ 0HUJLOL ,\$\*%2.8DQG%\$ -UJHQ6FK|UÀLQJHU ,6\$g\$: IRUWKHLU VXSSRUWZLWK\*,6 PDSV',)HUHQF=DPRO\L78:DQG0DUWLQ3RVSLFKDO78:IRUWKHLUDVVLVWDQFHLQ&\$'DQG rendering.

For local information, besides many others (see Correspondence and Interviewees in Chapter VIII), thanks belong to Jampa Kelsang (*zhépön* living in Lhasa), Penba Tashi (living in Lhasa), Nyema Tashi (living in Lhasa), Tashi (potter from Barab in Tibet), Donchog Tsering (clay sculptor from Lhasa), Wangchuk (ASI Jammu and Kashmir Chapter in Leh), Muhammad Saleem Beeg (INTACH Kashmir Chapter), Dechen Lundup (from Tabo in India), Dorje Tsering (from Keylong in India), David Holler (living in Lhasa), Sonam Wangchuk and Rebecca Norman (living in Ladakh), Tsewang Norbu (blacksmith and stove maker from Ne in Ladakh), Rigzen Wangyal (potter from Likir in Ladakh) and, last but not least, Tsering Norbu (from Likir in Ladakh).

For organisational support, the author is thankful to the team of the interlibrary loan at the TUW. For editing photos, thanks go to Mag. Mehmet Emir (ISA / ÖAW), and for proof reading, thnaks go to MA. Jessica Sloan-Leitner and Mag. Hermelinde Steiner.

For institutional support, the author is thankful to the Institute for Applied Geology (IAG) at the Vienna University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), the Institute for Social Anthropology (ISA) at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (ÖAW), the Institute of History of Art, Building Archaeology and Restoration at the Vienna University of Technology (TUW), the Geologische Bundesanstalt (GBA) in Vienna and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

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Some projects contributed to the success of this publication by supporting research and making data available. This includes the FWF (Austrian Science Fund) project P 21806, "Society, pow-HUDQGUHOLJLRQLQSUHPRGHUQ:HVWHUQ7LEHW´±SURMHFW3\*³7KH %XULDO0RXQGV RI&HQWUDO7LEHW´ ± DQG SURMHFW3 \*³7KH%XULDO 0RXQGV RI&HQWUDO7LEHW 3DUW ,,´ ±  IXUWKHUPRUH D SURMHFW RQ&OD\PLQHUDO DQDO\VLVLQWLWOHG³7RQPLQHUDODQO\VH´ZKLFKZDV¿QDQFHGE\WKH))\*\$XVWULDQ5HVHDUFK Promotion Agency), based at the Institute for Social Anthropology at the Austrian Academy RI6FLHQFHVLQ9LHQQDDOVRDVWURQJFRQWULEXWLRQZDVJLYHQE\WZR ,QQRYDWLRQ)XQG5HVHDUFK SURMHFWVEDVHGDWDQG¿QDQFHGE\WKH\$XVWULDQ\$FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHVLQSDUWLFXODUWKHSURMHFWV ³0DWHULDOLW\DQG0DWHULDO&XOWXUHLQ7LEHW´±DQG³&UDIWVDQG&UDIW7UDGLWLRQV LQ7LEHWDQ\$UFKLWHFWXUH´±

This publication is a revised version of the habilitation thesis submitted by the author at the TUW to be approved as university lecturer (Ger. *Privat Dozent*). Revision, in particular on crafts and building traditions was conducted as part of the project "Crafts and Craft Traditions in Tibetan Architecture", also funded by the Innovation Fund at the ÖAW.

)RU¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWWRFRQGXFWEDVLFUHVHDUFKZKLFKDOORZHGWRSXEOLVKWKLVERRNPDQ\WKDQNV go to the Austrian Academy of Sciences (ÖAW), the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG), the Österreichische Forschungsgemeinschaft (ÖFG), and the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), to the latter in particular for taking over the costs for printing and open access.

### GENERAL REMARKS

### \$ൻൻඋൾඏංൺඍංඈඇඌ


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12 General remarks


Abbreviations for languages:


### )ංൾඅൽඋൾඌൾൺඋർඁൺඇൽඋൾඅൺඍൾൽඉඋඈඃൾർඍඌ

Field research in the Himalayas, conducted by the author, started about twenty years ago. First ¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWZDVJLYHQE\DVFKRODUVKLSIURPWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\LQ\*UD]LQ Field research in ,UDQZDVFRQGXFWHGLQ)URP-XQHXQWLO'HFHPEHU¿HOG UHsearch was conducted in the Indian Himalayas, also in Pakistan and Nepal. In March and April ¿HOGUHVHDUFKWR&HQWUDODQGWest Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai and Gansu was undertaken as SDUWRIDQ\$XVWULDQ6FLHQFH)XQG):)SURMHFW3\*"Society, Power and Religion in 3UH0RGHUQ:HVWHUQ7LEHW,QWHUDFWLRQ&RQÀLFWDQG,QWHJUDWLRQ",Q-XO\DQG\$XJXVW¿HOG research to Kashmir and /DGDNKZDVFRQGXFWHGDVSDUWRIWKHVDPHSURMHFW3\*ZKLFK was also sponsored by the Österreichische Forschungsgesellschaft (ÖFG). In December 2011 / -DQXDU\¿HOGUHVHDUFKZDVFRQGXFWHGWRAnkara and Safranbolu region in Turkey. In June DQGDOVRLQ1RYHPEHUDQG'HFHPEHU¿HOGUHVHDUFKHQDEOHGVWXGLHVLQCentral Tibet, both expeditions being part of the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) project P 25066 "The Burial Mounds of Central Tibet",Q'HFHPEHU'HFHPEHU¿HOGUHVHDUFKZDVFRQGXFWHGWR Bulgaria. From September 2014 until February 2015, the project "Clay mineral analysis" under the leadership of the author was granted by the Institute of Social Anthropology at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna (ÖAW) and The Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) in cooperation with the Institute of Applied Geology at the University of Natural Resources and Life 6FLHQFHVLQ9LHQQD,\$\*%2.8,Q1RYHPEHU¿HOGUHVHDUFKZDVXQGHUWDNHQWRAlbania. ,Q -XO\ DQG\$XJXVW WKH DXWKRU FRQGXFWHG ¿HOG UHVHDUFKLQWKH ,QGLDQ +LPDOD\DV ZLWKLQ the project "Materiality and Material Culture in Tibet" funded by the ÖAW-Innovation Fund ³5HVHDUFK6FLHQFHDQG6RFLHW\´,Q0D\ILHOGUHVHDUFKZDVXQGHUWDNHQWR&HQWUDO7LEHWDV SDUWRIDQ\$XVWULDQ6FLHQFH)XQG):)SURMHFW3

### 0ൾඍඁඈൽඌඈൿඌඎඋඏൾඒ

,QWKHFRQWH[WRID¿HOG VXUYH\FRPPRQWRROVXWLOLVHG IRURQVLWHDUFKLWHFWXUDOVXUYH\LQFOXGH measuring, taking pictures, and oral documentation by conducting interviews. Building research ZLWKLQDVFLHQWL¿FVFRSHLVKHDYLO\EDVHGRQ¿HOGUHVHDUFKZKLFKUHOLHVRQWKHGRFXPHQWDWLRQRI three-dimensional objects. This also includes objects no longer or only partially existing and having to be reconstructed.

:RUNLQJZLWKYHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUHRIWHQOHDGVWRUHPRWHORFDWLRQV,QDQDUWLFOHRQ¿HOGGRFXmentation (cf. Feiglstorfer 2008), the author attempted to touch upon a topic, with which he is continuously being confronted: How to act in remote areas, partially as a single surveying UHVHDUFKHUDQGSRVVLEO\DOVRZLWKUHVWULFWLRQVLQDSSO\LQJKLJKO\WHFKQLFDOHTXLSPHQW6XFKFLUcumstances make it particularly challenging to establish methods of survey capable of being FRQGXFWHGE\DVLQJOHSHUVRQ LELG ,QWKHDPRXQWDQGVL]HRISRUWDEOHHTXLSPHQWZHFDQ GLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQDVXUYH\FRQGXFWHGZLWKLQDVXUYH\WHDPDQGDVXUYH\FRQGXFWHGE\RQH¶V VHOIDVDQLQGLYLGXDOLIQHFHVVDU\ZLWKORFDOVXSSRUW%HVLGHVVLPSOHHTXLSPHQWVXFKDVDKDQG laser measuring tool, a measuring tape, a bubble level, and a plumb, digital methods for processing image data are helpful. Examples include photogrammetry or Image Based Modeling (IBM) DOVRNQRZQDV6WUXFWXUHIURP0RWLRQ6I0IRUZKLFKLQWKH¿HOGSULPDULO\GLJLWDOHTXLSPHQWRI SKRWRJUDSK\LVUHTXLUHG,Q)HLJOVWRUIHUWKHDXWKRUDSSOLHGSKRWRJUDPPHWU\IRUVHYHUDO VXUYH\V6XUYH\WHFKQLTXHVDUHFRQWLQXRXVO\LPSURYLQJDQGWKHIRUPHUSKRWRJUDPPHWULFPHWKRG VKRZQLQ)HLJOVWRUIHU íZDVH[SDQGHGZLWK6I07KLVHQDEOHVWKHJHQHUDWLRQRI three-dimensional models out of two-dimensional overlapping pictures. It is one of the methods WKDWFDQLQWKH¿HOGHDVLO\EHFRQGXFWHGE\RQHSHUVRQZLWKWKHXVHRIDGLJLWDOFDPHUD,QWKHFDVH of using a drone or kite, a second person is needed to assist. Within the study on burial mounds in the FWF project "The Burial Mounds of Central Tibet" (P 25066), this WHFKQLTXHZDVXVHG for example, for smaller artefacts like a seal with a diameter of about 12 mm. Also, for further analysis of constructions in a three-dimensional view, this method was suitable. GPS is another LPSRUWDQWWRROWKDWLVIUHTXHQWO\XVHGZLWKLQWKLVUHVHDUFKLELG,QRUGHUWRJHQHUDWHPDSV GPS data are merged with GIS data. This method can be seen, for example, in a map of historical Western Tibet and Purang (cf. Feiglstorfer 2012b).

### &ඈඇඏൾඇඍංඈඇඌ

Common local terms are presented in phonetic transcription. Their transliteration is given in EUDFNHWVZKHQ¿UVWQRWHG7LEHWDQWHUPVKDYHEHHQWUDQVOLWHUDWHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHV\VWHPRI7XUUHO 9:\OLH

Source references in the text are placed directly following the text passage concerned before the following punctuation character. In case the given source refers to more than one successive sentence, the source reference is given after the punctuation character of the last sentence concerned.

### INTRODUCTION

&DWHJRULVHGZLWKLQWKH¿HOGRIEXLOGLQJKLVWRU\DQGPDWHULDOFXOWXUHWKHFXUUHQWWRSLFRILQWHUHVW includes the disciplines of WHFKQLTXH QDWXUDO VFLHQFHDQG KXPDQLW\7KHDSSOLHGPHWKRGRORJ\ spans between "classic building WHFKQLTXHUHVHDUFK´ZLWKVRFLDODQWKURSRORJLFDOFRPSRQHQWVDQG material research including laboratory analysis.

Research on building history is based on a maximum dense net of material cultural markers. Their nature is complex and linked to a variety of locally and regionally connoted material aspects. Exploration of such markers is a main focus of this study. As a case study, the Himalayan region has been chosen, and the applied methodology is transferable to other areas of research. The UHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQZLWKLQWKHDUHDRI VWXG\FRQFHUQVLQWHUUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQDUFKLWHFWXUDOPDFUR and micro components ranging between the materialisation of ideological programmes, building WHFKQLTXHVDQGEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHV7KHRXWOLQHRIWKHPHWKRGFDQEHIRXQGLQWKHVWUXFture of the chapters.

Chapter I concerns architectural methods for the materialisation of spatial concepts in accordance with religio-political programmes. The second and third chapters are both concerned with material research. Chapter II shows the relation between traditional crafts and vernacular architecture regarding technical properties of raw material and methods of processing. Chapter III goes into detail of the applied mineralogical research methods to analyse relations between the composi-WLRQVRIGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIFOD\XVHGIRUFUDIWVDQGEXLOGLQJSXUSRVH&KDSWHU,9FRQFHUQVQDWXUDO resources and climate conditions and their impact on Himalayan composite constructions embedded in a Eurasian context.

### &ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,2ඇඍඁൾආൺඍൾඋංൺඅංඌൺඍංඈඇඈൿൺඋൾඅංංඈඎඌඉඋඈඋൺආආൾ

7KHTXHVWLRQRIVSDWLDOSURJUDPPHVLQWKLVFRQWH[WRIHDUO\&HQWUDODQGWest Tibetan religious VWUXFWXUHVUHTXLUHVDXQL¿FDWLRQRIPDWHULDODQGUHOLJLRXVSURJUDPPDWLFFRQFHSWV,QLWLDOO\WKH TXHVWLRQIRUWKHHVVHQFHRIDUHOLJLRSROLWLFDOSURJUDPLVUDLVHG8QLYHUVDOSURJUDPPHVDUHGH¿QHG and supported by canonical architectural features. Buddhist monastic structures follow geometrical and proportional concepts. Their three-dimensional design focuses on an ideal and geometri-FDOO\GH¿QHGFRPPRQSLYRWDQGVWDQGVLQDQLQVHSDUDEOHVSDWLDOUHODWLRQWREHKDYLRXUDOSDWWHUQV of pilgrims and devotees. The materiality of such structures becomes part of a larger whole and extends to the spatial organisation of the surrounding settlement and beyond. Particular markers ZLWKLQWKHYLOODJHFRPSRXQGIROORZWKLVVSDWLDOFRQFHSWDQGGH¿QHWKHSLOJULPV¶PRYHPHQWV

Analysis and comparison of religious structures provide insight into architectural methods for the PDWHULDOLVDWLRQRIUHOLJLRXVFRQFHSWV%HVLGHVJHRPHWULFDQGSURSRUWLRQDOFRQFHSWVWKHGH¿QLWLRQ of the orientation of religious structures is also of importance. Based on a reconstruction of the Khorchag Monastery, located in West Tibet, a hypothesis for celestial dependence between the OD\RXWRIUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVDQGDFRVPRORJLFDOXQL¿FDWLRQLVHPSKDVLVHG,QFRQFOXGLQJWKLV FKDSWHUDQGEULGJLQJWRWKH IROORZLQJFKDSWHUWKHTXHVWLRQLVUDLVHGRIWKHLPSDFWRIEXLOGLQJ materials within such spatial programmes.

### &ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,,0ൺඍൾඋංൺඅඍඋൺൽංඍංඈඇඌ±5ൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅൺඇൽඍൾർඁඇංඊඎൾඌ

&KDQJLQJWKH VFDOH E\PRYLQJ IURP VSDWLDO SURJUDPPHVWRZDUGVPDWHULDO TXDOLWLHVOHDGVLQWR the topic of material research, with mineral-based materials being the focus. Regarding materials for building purposes, in addition to their use for primary constructions like walls or URRIV XVH IRUDUFKLWHFWXUDO VXUIDFHV SOD\VDQLPSRUWDQW UROHLQWKH SURFHVVLQJ RI GL൵HUHQWPD-WHULDOTXDOLWLHV\$FFRUGLQJWRXVHZHPD\GLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQDTXDOLW\XVHG IRUVLPSOH IXQFtional local building purpose and such used for representation of a higher social status. In most FDVHVWKLV GL൵HUHQFH EHFRPHV YLVLEOHWKURXJKWKH TXDOLW\ RIWKH VHOHFWHG UDZPDWHULDO DQGLWV SURFHVVLQJ )RU D FRPSDUDWLYH SXUSRVH GL൵HUHQW FUDIWV KDYH EHHQ FKRVHQ IRUWKLV VWXG\ ±WKH making of ÀDW URRIVRIclay sculptures and of SRWWHU\±HQDEOLQJWKHH[DPLQDWLRQRI UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ PLQHUDO FRPSRVLWLRQV RI SDUWLFXODU UDZ PDWHULDOV XVHG IRU GL൵HUHQW FUDIWV\$Q DVSHFW ZLWKLQ WKH FXUUHQW UHVHDUFK LV WKH TXHVWLRQLQJ RI VWLOO H[LVWHQW PDWHULDO WUDGLWLRQV ZLWK D SXU-SRVHEHLQJWROHDUQDQGXQGHUVWDQGORFDODSSURDFKHVWR¿QGLQJDQGSURFHVVLQJSURSHUPDWHULDOV

### &ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,,,(ൺඋඍඁൻඎංඅൽංඇඍඋൺൽංඍංඈඇඌංඇ%ൺඌඈൺඇൽ/ංංඋ

In this chapter, the research conducted in Chapter II is continued on an analytical level. The research area includes the villages of Basgo and Likir, both located in Ladakh, and their close surroundings, where earth building traditions are still alive. Particular clay samples used for adobe bricks, ÀDWroof constructions, clay plaster, pottery and also the *tab* (Tibetan stove) are analysed regarding their mineralogical composition and methods of processing. Results will be juxtaposed. Some of the samples are related to historical sites, others to contemporary constructions and EXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV\$ YDULHW\ RI GL൵HUHQW FRPSRVLWLRQV DQG DSSOLFDWLRQV HQDEOHVWKH VWXG\ RI relations between historical use and living traditions. Local terms for clays are included in the comparative research so as to search for particular relations between local traditions.

# Chapter IV: Himalayan composite constructions and environmental influences

Over the Western Himalayas, composite constructions have a long tradition reaching back at least into the 8thFHQWXU\&(,QLWLDOO\WKLVFKDSWHUTXHVWLRQVLQDUHJLRQDOFRQWH[WWUDQVPLVVLRQ RISDUWLFXODUFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXHVZKLFKDUHWUDGLWLRQDOO\XVHGIRUZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQV7KHFRP-ELQDWLRQRIGL൵HUHQWPDWHULDOVPDNHVQHFHVVDU\WKHREVHUYDWLRQRIQDWXUDOLQÀXHQFHVRQVLQJOH FRPSRQHQWVRIWKHVWUXFWXUHVXFKDVZRRGVWRQHDQGFOD\\$UDQJHRIQDWXUDOIDFWRUVLQÀXHQFLQJ WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVLQJOHWHFKQLTXHVEHFRPHVHYLGHQW\$VDIXUWKHUVWHSPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHVDQG FOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVDUHGH¿QHGIRUWKHUHVHDUFKDUHD%DVHGRQWKHVHFRQGLWLRQVFHUWDLQGHYHORSments in construction are explained. For the development of particular technical features of com-SRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQVWKHLULPSDFWRQDཙVHLVPLFFXOWXUHཚLVGLVFXVVHG

In order to obtain an idea of early traditions and the development of composite constructions, the investigation of historical structures is an essential part of this study. The development of certain WHFKQLTXHV LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK HQYLURQPHQWDO FRQGLWLRQV LV DQDO\VHG\$ FRQWLQXRXV FKDQJH RI composite constructions can be monitored, showing their transformation in a regional context.

### PRELIMINARIES

### ,ඇඍൾඋൽංඌർංඉඅංඇൺඋංඍඒ

Crucial matters such as tradition or vernacular are common basic frames within material cultural research, and as such are applied within this study. They accompany most discussions on this topic in a theoretical and practically applied manner, and are crucial not only in a Himalayan UHODWLRQEXWIRUEXLOGLQJUHVHDUFKLQJHQHUDO7KHLUEDVLFGH¿QLWLRQVDQGUHODWLRQVWREXLOGLQJUH-VHDUFKDUHDW¿UVWWUHDWHGLQDWKHRUHWLFDOIRUPZKLFKLVWKRXJKWWREHDKXPDQLVWLFLQWURGXFWLRQWR material cultural matters. Traditions are locally determined and in their general existence follow SDUWLFXODUJHQHUDOSDWWHUQVWKDWDUHORRNHGDWIURPGL൵HUHQWDQJOHV0DWHULDOLW\DQGDUFKLWHFWXUHLQ particular are just components within the matter of tradition and vernacular, which may partially be explained by a material approach. Tradition and vernacular are deeply linked to humans as social beings within a social structure, and studying tradition and vernacular is closely related to WKH¿HOGRIVRFLDODQWKURSRORJ\\$VDUHVHDUFKHUWUDLQHGLQWKH¿HOGRIDUFKLWHFWXUHWKLVUHODWLRQ VHHPVEDVLFWRXQGHUVWDQGLQJZLGHUFRQWH[WV1HYHUWKHOHVVWKLVUHVHDUFKIRFXVHVRQWKHDXWKRUကV ¿HOGRIH[SHUWLVH7KHIROORZLQJH[SODQDWLRQVVKRZDQLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\VHWWLQJRIWUDGLWLRQDQG vernacular, including material cultural and social anthropological aspects.

### 7උൾൺඍආൾඇඍඈൿඋൾඌൾൺඋർඁංඇൿඈඋආൺඍංඈඇ

Use of an appropriate building construction is an essential part of primary human needs. A wide range of construction typologies was invented, developed, adopted, transformed, and over the FRXUVHRIWLPHQHJOHFWHGRUGHVWUR\HGíLHVXEMHFWHGWRFRQWLQXRXVFKDQJH<sup>2</sup> , thereby continuously moving its architectural character. Construction is the backbone of any building structure DVDFDUULHURIPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHV<sup>3</sup> Its existence and design are interwoven into a wide range of human actions, resulting in constructional decisions. In any case, constructions communicate in a material form with the particular local environment, and are to be mentioned as an essential material-cultural4 ¿QJHUSULQW

4 *Material culture* in general is related to objects and, regarding the present topic, to architecture in particular. 6SHDNLQJLQDQDUFKLWHFWXUDOUHODWLRQPD\WRRPXFKFRQVWUDLQWKHZLGH¿HOGRIPDWHULDOLVHGSDUDPHWHUVDQGPLJKW exclude objects that are not preliminarily architectural but are possibly used in an architectural context. Of the

<sup>2</sup> &KDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWUDGLWLRQDOW\SHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQDUHGLUHFWO\UHODWHGWRLWVVLQJOHFRPSRQHQWVWKHTXLFNHUWKH change of an object, the more short-dated the single components will be (Lehner 2008: 14).

<sup>3</sup> In this context, *material quality* refers to information on its physical existence given by and about the object itself, such as technical properties, e.g. which kind of construction or which materials were used. This may also be re-ODWHGWRIXUWKHULQIRUPDWLRQíVHQVXDODQGDVVRFLDWLYHíRQQRQWHFKQLFDOSURSHUWLHVHJZKLFKVRFLDOFODVVGLGWKH builders belong to or what may have been the environmental conditions. The summary of all the information given E\DQGDERXWWKHSDUWLFXODUFRQVWUXFWLRQGH¿QHVLWVPDWHULDOTXDOLW\LHWKHLQIRUPDWLRQQHFHVVDU\WRGHVFULEHWKH single parameters, which are relevant for the material existence of an object including any information given by the related environment on the object and vice versa.

'HDOLQJZLWKWUDGLWLRQVUHTXLUHVVFLHQWL¿FRSWLRQVWRUHFRQVWUXFWLQFRPSOHWHKLVWRULFDOGDWDVLQFH our understanding of historical facts depends on possibilities of reconstruction within a certain frame of understandable reference and period.5 +LVWRU\LVXVHGDVDFROOHFWLRQíDQGIRUWKHDQDO\- VLVRIGDWDíWRJHWDQVZHUVIRUFRPSDUDEOHKLVWRULFDOLQFLGHQWV%\XVLQJFRQWHPSRUDU\GDWDWR the greatest extent possible, the use of the present point of view to explain the past should not be DWWHPSWHG5DSRSRUW

This perception may lead to relativising and self-critical insight that results from the fact that research on traditions is dependent on society, its conceptual framework and the period of time, in which a researcher acts. An example of an allegorical depiction of a kind of *Ur*-structure DQGD UHODWHG TXHVWLRQ RIZKHWKHUHYHU\ VWUXFWXUHPD\ EH GH¿QHGDV VXFKLV JLYHQLQ6FKRSHU E\SURYLGLQJDGUDZLQJDVH[DPSOHFRQFHUQLQJDQDOOHJRULFDOFKDQJHIURPQDWXUH into a simple building structure. The drawing depicts four trees grown in a rectangular position to each other. Their opposing branches form a gable roof in such a way that it seems as if the top of a simple hut has been constructed (as interpreted by Charles Eisen6 ). This example provides the opportunity to discuss the interrelation between how one interprets certain pre-information and the particularly given intellectual and cultural background.

Field research, documentation and the study of architecture and constructions on-site and at the living object reveal sensitivity for local varieties and related circumstances of possible genesis and change. This kind of on-site-research presupposes not only the examination of the construction but in a much wider sense the environmental, social and historical parameters, in which the object is embedded. This approach seems to be preliminary for conducting building research, no matter if the object is still in use, ready for use or already in ruins.

Typologies of building constructions are generally systematised parameters to make certain as-SHFWVFRPSUHKHQVLEOHZLWKLQDFHUWDLQVFLHQWL¿FDOO\DVFHUWDLQDEOHSDWWHUQ,WLVWKHUHVHDUFKRQVLWH WKDWVXSSRUWVWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIFRQVWUXFWLYHYDULHWLHVZLWKLQFDWHJRULHVDQGGL൵HUHQWVWDJHVRI WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ7KLVLQVWDQFHUHTXLUHVDFORVHUH[DPLQDWLRQDQGDFRQVWDQWTXHVWLRQLQJRIH[LVWing rigid categorisations, and treatment stages of transformation on a same categorical level. One must be aware of mentioning particular methods in "making", for example, an earth roof or wall, a plaster, a stove, etc. as regionally typical building methods, since constructions are often local variations and strongly dependent on local material resources.

6LQJOHDVSHFWVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHVKDYHWREHVWXGLHGLQDUHVSHFWLYHFXOWXUDOFRQWH[WZLWK the respective particular relation and not as a separated momentum, as emphasised by Eriksen

PDLQPDWHULDOVXVHGIRUYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHVLHVWRQHZRRGFOD\DQG¿EUHVQRQHDUHSULPDULO\FUHDWHGIRUDQ DUFKLWHFWXUDOXVHDVORQJDVPDQGH¿QHGWKHPE\DSDUWLFXODUXVHDVDQDUFKLWHFWXUDOREMHFW7KHSDUWLFXODUXVHRI these materials makes their integration within a particular culture physically evident. An essential aim in this debate is the closer examination of the essence of materials used as building materials within culturally distinct and GL൵HUHQWLDEOHKXPDQFUHDWLYLW\

<sup>5</sup> The ability and the way to reconstruct depend on the given ability within a particular society and epoch (Assmann +HPHQWLRQVWKLVIDFWDV*Rekonstruktivität* (Ger.) as one of six features of cultural memory.

<sup>6</sup> )URQWFRYHUE\&KDUOHV(LVHQíLQ0DUF\$QWRLQH/DXJLHU

(2001: 200).7 7HFKQLTXHV<sup>8</sup> aimed at creating a certain product work within a certain local customary frame.

A detailed study of various material cultural case examples given in this contribution enabled WKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHLUORFDOUHOHYDQFH&RPSDUDWLYHVWXGLHVZLWKLQDZLGHUIRFXV±DOVRLQD UHJLRQDOFRQWH[W±UHYHDOHGIUHVKLQVLJKWLQWRSRVVLEOHUHJLRQDOUHODWLRQV6WXG\LQJWKHREMHFWLWVHOI LVRQHPDWWHUZKLFKLVIROORZHGE\WKHVWXG\RIWKHREMHFW¶VLQWHUUHODWLRQV,QGLYLGXDOFRQVWUXFWLYH features and their comparison within a local and regional FRQWH[WDUHTXHVWLRQHGDQGOLQNHGWRD search for their material cultural impact.

,WLVDZDUHQHVVWRZDUGVFHUWDLQLQWHUUHODWLRQVE\FRPSDULQJWKHSDUWLFXODUVLJQL¿FDQWSDUDPHWHUVWR HDFKRWKHUDQGORRNLQJIRUDWKUHDGRIWUDQVPLVVLRQRUGL൵XVLRQ7KHSRVVLEOHUDQJHRIV\QHUJLHV EHWZHHQWKHUHDVRQVIRUWKHH[LVWHQFHRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVLVGLYHUVH7KH\HLWKHUGLUHFWO\LQÀXHQFH each other or have grown independently from each other. In any case, arguing within a certain SUHGH¿QHGPDWUL[RIHYDOXDWLRQVKRXOGJXDUDQWHHDSUR[LPDWHREMHFWLYHDSSURDFK

7UDGLWLRQDOEXLOGLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQVDUHDVVXFKREMHFWVGH¿QHGE\KXPDQVDQGDUHWREHVHHQDVD product within a continuous process of change. This results in positioning objects of research into a living, not only object- but process-orientated continuity. Regarding this aspect, Allen Noble (2007: 1) relates "traditional" to processes and material objects as carriers of material cultural aspects, always to be understood within a processual context. Since traditions are related to historic structures, the process-generating facts are only evident in fragments. Mention of them may not be seen as exclusive but as a result of availability within the research work.

7KHSURFHVVLWVHOILVKDUGWRH[SODLQDVVRPHWKLQJFRPSOHWHDQG¿QLVKHGEXWDXFRQWUDLUHDVDQ LQ¿QLWHVXPPDU\RIYDULRXVSDUDPHWHUVGHSHQGLQJRQOLPLWHGSRVVLELOLWLHVGXULQJ¿HOGUHVHDUFK &RQGLWLRQVGXULQJ¿HOGUHVHDUFKDUHQRWDOZD\VWKHVDPHGXHWRGL൵HUHQWFLUFXPVWDQFHVOLNHDF-FHVVLELOLW\UHVRXUFHVLQWLPHXQIDYRXUDEOHFOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVRUKLJKFRVWV±SUDFWLFDOUHDVRQV WKDWPD\H[SODLQDNLQGRILQFRPSOHWHQHVVRI¿HOGVRXUFHV

In this regard, the possible objectivity of the relevance of single parameters within a whole process of the genesis of a particular type of construction has to be understood within a net of available and non-available information. Missing information may result in the vanishing of certain preceding structures or in not available written evidences. This has to be considered individually in the translation of the semiotics of an object. An example is the circumstance of non accessible parts of a wall construction, such as the constructive core of a stone wall. Even knowledge that a

<sup>7</sup> :LWKUHIHUHQFHWR3ID൵HQEHUJHU

<sup>8</sup> 7HFKQLTXHVDUHDVRFLDOSURGXFWOHDUQWWKURXJKWUDGLWLRQDQGDUHDOVRpart of a material culture (Lemonnier 2007: 544). As one characteristic of WHFKQLTXH/HPRQQLHUGL൵HUHQWLDWHVEHWZHHQWZRGLPHQVLRQVRIWHFKQLFDOEHKDYLRXU physical and communication.

*Local* and *regional*DUHXVHGDVUHODWLYHWHUPV*local*LVGH¿QHGE\FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIDSODFHZKLOH*regional*GH¿QHV DZLGHUDUHDGH¿QHGE\DFHUWDLQJHRJUDSKLFDOH[WHQVLRQDQGSDUWLFXODUFKDUDFWHULVWLFV ,QWKLV UHJDUGWKHLUXVH GHSHQGVRQWKHFRQWH[WQRWRQDSUHOLPLQDU\VSDWLDOOLPLWDWLRQ\$FKOHLWQHUSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKHFKDQJHability of a region is based on the abilities of the people settling there and also that a region exists in a continuous state of draft.

ZDOO¶VH[WHUQDODSSHDUDQFHLVVLPLODUWRWKDWRIDQHLJKERXULQJZDOO±IRUZKLFKZHSRVVLEO\KDYH GHWDLOHGHYLGHQFHRIPHWKRGVXVHGIRULWVFRQVWUXFWLRQíGRHVQRWJLYHIXOOFHUWDLQW\WRWKHFRQFOX-VLRQWKDWERWKZDOOV¶FRQVWUXFWLRQVDUHWKHVDPH7KHULJKWFKRLFHRIWRROVIRUWKHWUDQVODWLRQRI semiotic parameters10 is needed for a successful approach.

2EMHFWLYLW\LVWKHFHQWUDODLPZLWKLQVFLHQWL¿FZRUN)RUPXODWLRQVDQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVFKRLFHRI comparison samples, particularly within a comparative study, have to follow this ideal. However, contrary to *hard* sciences, a comparative study as a *soft* science is based on a relativity already GH¿QHGE\WKHFKRLFHRIWKHH[DPSOHVRIFRPSDULVRQ7KLVVLWXDWLRQSRWHQWLDOO\OHDYHVXQFOHDU aspects and, based on subjective experience, a certain relativisation may be needed. The choice of comparative objects and of the used methods in analysis and interpretation are to a certain extent based on subjective experience. By giving all the related decisions in a most objective and comprehensible manner, the aim is again focussed on the *VFLHQWL¿F*. 11

Regarding this concern, it has to be pointed out that most of the empiric material used is based on primary sources collected by the author. This bears advantages in originality compared to secondary sources. Several of the documented, primarily vernacular12 objects were as such changed or have already vanished completely over the course of preparing this book. In this regard, parts RIWKHSUHVHQWHGPDWHULDODUHXQLTXHDQGRIKLJKYDOXHDVDUFKLWHFWRQLFFRQWHPSRUDU\ZLWQHVVHV 7KHFULWLFDOVLGHRIWKLVFLUFXPVWDQFHLVWKDWZLWKFRQWLQXRXVO\RQJRLQJFKDQJH±RUPXFKZRUVH ZLWKWKHGLVDSSHDUDQFHRIZLWQHVVHV±PDWHULDOVRXUFHVKDYHYDQLVKHGDQGPD\QRWEHXQGHUVWRRG LQWKHKHUHGRFXPHQWHGZD\GXULQJIXUWKHU¿HOGUHVHDUFK,QPDQ\FDVHVWKHWUHDWHGYHUQDFXODU examples are not repaired or rebuilt in a traditional way after their partial or complete change or DIWHUGHVWUXFWLRQEXWDUHHLWKHUUHSODFHGE\µPRGHUQ¶ constructions that do not follow preceding building tradition or remain unreplaced.

### \$ඌඉൾർඍඌඈൿඍඋൺൽංඍංඈඇ

Tradition can be explained as the living process of interpreting the past. One can also follow D GH¿QLWLRQ JLYHQ E\ 5LHJHU-DQGO 7UDGLWLRQ GH¿QHV ³DQ DQRQ\PRXV SURGXFW RI D FROOHFWLYHVXEFRQVFLRXVQHVV´WUDQVODXWKRU\$QRWKHUGH¿QLWLRQDFFRUGLQJWR6KLOV mentions tradition as "anything passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning RUVSHFLDOVLJQL¿FDQFHZLWKRULJLQVLQWKHSDVW´\$OLWHUDOPHDQLQJGLUHFWO\WUDQVODWHGIURP/DWLQ LV³WRWUDQVPLW´LQWKHVHQVHRI³SDVVLQJGRZQ´7KHVHGH¿QLWLRQVDUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\UHODWHGWR

<sup>10</sup> The relationship between a sign and its object is understood by speakers of the same language (Beeman 2002: 421). The operating radius of local terms and related social communities are linked to this matter as seen in the following.

<sup>11</sup> %HFNZLWK[LSRLQWVRXWWKHQHHGIRUDFFHSWDQFHRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIRQH¶VRZQH[SHULHQFHPDGHZKLFKLQ LWVQDWXUHLVVXEMHFWLYHEXWVWLOOLQWHJUDOLQDQREMHFWLYHVFLHQWL¿FSURFHVV

<sup>12</sup> *Vernacular* (Ger. *vernakulär*) is used as a native language pattern versus the standardised and polite (*lingua franca*) architecture*,* and is based on local traditions and needs (Oliver 2006). The endemic existence of vernacular structures is limited to a certain region, possibly also to several regions. Indigenous patterns rely on continuous change. Aigner (2010: 27) mentions possible changes as adaptation to new living conditions by a process of modernisation, LQFOXGLQJVWUXFWXUHVZKLFKZHUHWUDQVODWHGZLWKQHZPDWHULDOVGL൵HUHQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVRUVFDOHRUE\LPPLQJOLQJ ZLWKGL൵HUHQWIRUPVDQGFXOWXUHV

#### Preliminaries 21

Himalayan culture and will primarily be treated here in a general discourse. The explanations given in the following context for "tradition" and "traditional" are again based on experiences IURP¿HOGUHVHDUFK:KHQWDONLQJDERXWWUDGLWLRQVWKHLUSRVVLEOHFKDQJHDQGORVVLQHYLWDEO\EHcome a matter of discussion.

It is unclear when some traditions began. We may distinguish between the GL൵XVLRQRIWUDGLWLRQV GXHWRH[WHUQDOLQÀXHQFHVDQGVXFKZKLFKDUHUHODWHGWRDFRPPRQORFDODLPRIDGRSWLQJDQG optimising. As an example, a particular method of using timber lacing in solid wall structures is evident along a route from the Himalayas via Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey towards East Europe. Its constructional coherence over such a wide distance is evident, and a local random development may be excluded. In the case of local knowledge on particular local methods in making timber-ODFHGFRQVWUXFWLRQVDGL൵XVLRQRIEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQVRYHUDGLVWDQFHRIKXQGUHGVRINLORPHWUHV SDLUHGZLWKORFDODGDSWDWLRQVPD\EHVXVSHFWHGFI)HLJOVWRUIHU\$PL[LQJRIH[WHUQDOUH-VSHFWLYHO\ORFDOUHDVRQVLVVXSSRVHGIRUWKHGL൵XVLRQRIDSDUWLFXODUEXLOGLQJPHWKRGRYHUKXQdreds of kilometres.

:LWKLQWKHPDWHULDOIRFXVRIWKHSUHVHQWUHVHDUFKNQRZOHGJHRIEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVSOD\VDQHVsential role when "embedded in the habitus and in knowledge systems, and technologies may be studied as LGHRORJ\´(ULNVHQ7KHXVHRIDWHFKQLTXHKDVWREHXQGHUVWRRGLQORFDO FRPPXQLWLHVGL൵HUHQWO\WRFRQVLGHUDWLRQRXWVLGHDYHUQDFXODUFRQWH[W,QFDVHRIDORVVRIDOR-FDOFRPPXQLW\WKHFKRLFHRIWHFKQLTXHVEHFRPHVPRUHYDULDEOHDQGIURPDEXLOGHU¶VLQGLYLGXDO decision in a vernacular context we see a strong relation to customs of the community. The vernacular system itself becomes a kind of reminder of accepted socio-cultural rules and conventions 6DQGHUVDQGLWVXQGHUVWDQGLQJLVGHSHQGHQWRQWKH³OHYHORIUHGXQGDQF\DQGZD\RI transmission" (ibid. 47).

+REVEDZPYLHZVWKHLQYDULDQFHDQGXVHRI¿[HGSUDFWLFHVDVLPSRUWDQWIDFWVIRUWKH H[LVWHQFHRIWUDGLWLRQVDQGSRLQWVRXWWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQWUDGLWLRQDQGFXVWRP,QKLVGH¿QL-WLRQWUDGLWLRQGRHVQRWSUHFOXGHLQQRYDWLRQDQGFKDQJHVWKDWGLUHFWO\LQÀXHQFHWUDGLWLRQLELG as a continuous updating of order structures. Custom is mentioned as an expression of tradition being in a continuous confrontation with ingenuity (Lawrence 2006: 126).

,QGLYLGXDO VWUXFWXUHV DUHLQWHUZRYHQ ZLWKLQ DORFDO SDWWHUQODQJXDJH DQGWKH TXHVWLRQ RI ZKR IRXQGHGDWUDGLWLRQPD\LQJHQHUDOEHDQVZHUHGE\ORRNLQJDWDFROOHFWLYHLQÀXHQFH3RVVLELOLWLHV to change or add customs in a traditional system exist for a coordinating elite.13 Noyes and \$EUDKDPVPHQWLRQWKDWFXVWRPVDQGWUDGLWLRQVPD\DOVREHLQYHQWHGE\XVLQJDOUHDG\ existing models, and that the success of invented traditions "depends on the sensitivity of elite UHDGLQJV´ 7UDGLWLRQDO EXLOGLQJ WHFKQLTXHV WKDW GHYHORSHG RYHU D ORQJ SHULRG RI WLPH DQG DUH based on environmental preconditions are to a certain extent related to functional necessities that

<sup>13</sup> ,QWKLVFRQWH[W+HUUOHGL൵HUHQWLDWHVLQDJHQHUDOLVLQJPDQQHUEHWZHHQDGDSWLRQDQGXVXUSDWLRQUHODWHG to exercise power based on the consciousness of those who are the users and those who are the builders. Herrle HPSKDVLVHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFRKHVLYHQHVV³µ&RKHVLYHQHVV¶LQWKLVFRQWH[WFDQWKHQEHGH¿QHGDVWKHGHJUHHWR which the amalgamation of cultural elements of various origins has led to generally accepted norms and standards. […] identity depends on a certain level of cohesiveness, on commonly shared values (at least in a particular refer-HQFHJURXSDQGWKHUHE\DOORZVDUHDVVXUDQFHIURPWKHµRWKHU¶YLVjYLVWKHµVHOI¶´LELG

#### 22 Preliminaries

GH¿QHWKHGHVLJQRIDEXLOGLQJ2QHPHDQLQJRIWUDGLWLRQLQFOXGHVWKHH[LVWHQFHRISDVWSUDFWLFHV and their continuity and relation to something authentic. Past practices in the present meaning DUHUHODWHGWRPDWHULDONQRZOHGJHLQSDUWLFXODUWHFKQLTXHVZLWKDVWURQJVRFLRFXOWXUDOUHODWLRQ<sup>14</sup> %DU¿HOG8QWLOWKH VWDUWRIDPRGHUQLVDWLRQHUDNQRZOHGJHKDGEHHQKDQGHGRYHU within a particular community and from generation to generation. The process of collective learn-LQJLVDQRQJHQHWLFDOO\SUHGH¿QHGSURFHVVRIµVRFLDOOHDUQLQJ¶E\ZKLFKDSUHGH¿QHGEHKDYLRXUDO SDWWHUQLVDFTXLUHGE\DQLQGLYLGXDO %DXPDQQ)XUWKHULWLVHPSKDVLVHGWKDWSHRSOH learn as individuals (ibid. 37).15

7UDGLWLRQDOFRQVWUXFWLRQVZHUHSURYHQE\WKH UHODWHGVRFLHW\ IRUWKHLUH൶FLHQF\DQGPD\KDYH been adapted to changes, if necessary. This process of adaption can last as long as this particular SURSHUW\RIUHJHQHUDWLRQLVQRWRYHUZKHOPHGE\H[WHUQDOLQÀXHQFHVVXFKDVWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRI so-called "Western standards". A continuity of a particular building culture depends on the construction itself in terms of its adaptability in a functional and technical context and on the acceptance of the society concerned (Lehner 2008: 16).16\$PRQJIRXUGL൵HUHQWVWDJHV17 within a design WKHRU\ DV GHVFULEHG E\ 6NLER DQG 6FKL൵HU ± WKH EHKDYLRXUDO FKDLQ DQG WHFKQLFDO choices are of particular interest within this study. The behavioural chain contains the manufacturing process that is related to the availability of raw material and possibilities in its processing. 7KHODWWHUDVSHFWLHWHFKQLFDOFKRLFHVLVUHODWHGWRJHQHUDWLRQRIDQDGHTXDWHFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG ¿QGLQJRIDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHGHVLJQ7KURXJKRXWWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQWKHVHDVSHFWVDUHDEDVLFJXLGH

### \$ඌඉൾർඍඌඈൿඏൾඋඇൺർඎඅൺඋ

9HUQDFXODULQFOXGHVDKXJHYDULHW\RIGL൵HUHQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGGHVLJQV,WVFRPSOH[LW\LVJLYHQ E\LWVLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\HQWLW\LQDTXDQWLWDWLYHDQGTXDOLWDWLYHUHODWLRQ9HOOLQJDUDLVHVLQ WKHFKDSWHU³7KHHQGRIWKHYHUQDFXODU´WKHTXHVWLRQIRUWKHQHHGRIDFDWHJRULVDWLRQRIYHUQDFXODU 7RJHWFORVHWRDGH¿QLWLRQVHYHUDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVZLOOEHJLYHQ\$QHDUO\XVHRIWKHWHUPYHU-QDFXODULQFRQWH[WZLWKYHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUHFDQEHWUDFHGEDFNWR\*UHHQDFFRUGLQJ to Vellinga 2011: 176), although the term *vernacular* originates from the Latin *vernaculus* (Ger. *einheimisch*, *inländisch*, Engl. *indigenous*, *native*).18 Vernacular may be understood as native or XQLTXHDQGOLQNHGWRDFHUWDLQSODFH\$O6D\\DG[YLL,QHDUOLHUGD\VWKHWHUP*vernacular* was used "to describe buildings that were built according to local custom to meet the personal UHTXLUHPHQWVRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOVIRUZKRPWKH\DUHLQWHQGHG´1REOH5DSRSRUW 177) refers to early use of the term *vernacular*LQWKHth century: Vernacular architecture may

18 According to the Merriam Webster dictionary.

<sup>14</sup> \$FFRUGLQJWRDGH¿QLWLRQE\7LP,QJROGLQ(ULNVHQWHFKQRORJ\LV³DFRUSXVRIFXOWXUDOO\WUDQVmitted knowledge, expressed in manufacture and use".

<sup>15</sup> In this textUHIHUULQJWR\*RRGHQRXJK

<sup>16</sup> Regarding *Regionales Bauen* (Ger.) and a related process of change, \$FKOHLWQHUGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQ WZRLQÀXHQFLQJIDFWRUV³WKHPRUHVWDEOHµORFDO¶DQGWKHPRUHG\QDPLFµH[WHULRU¶ZLWKDV\VWHPDWLVHGFKDUDFWHU […]" (transl. author).

<sup>17</sup> 7KHIRXUGL൵HUHQWVWDJHVZLWKLQGHVLJQWKHRU\E\6NLERDQG6FKL൵HUDUHOLIHKLVWRU\behavioural chain, activities and interactions, technical choices, and performance characteristics.

#### Preliminaries 23

be explained because of actions taken due to local needs and given natural resources based on a collective decisional level.

9HUQDFXODULVUHODWHGWRDVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHDQGGH¿QHVDV\VWHPRIZKLFKPDWHULDOLW\DQGLQSDU-WLFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUHDQGFUDIWVDUHFRPSRQHQWV3ROLWHDUFKLWHFWXUHLQFRQWUDVWLVGH¿QHGE\QRQ local styles and does not follow local traditions. The expression "vernacular architecture" may vaguely signify the merging of expressions such as "indigenous, anonymous, spontaneous, native RUUHODWHGWRWKHFRXQWU\VLGH´WUDQVODXWKRUZKLFKDUHXVHGDFFRUGLQJWR5XGRIVN\ due to a lack of a related generic expression. Modern does not exclude vernacular, as long it remains part of a vernacular social context. Also a particular functional association or a particularly related social hierarchical status does not necessarily exclude an object from being vernacular, again, as long as it remains part of a vernacular social context. Based on this premise, all kinds of buildings, even palaces, monasteries, or residential and utilitarian structures may all be connected WRWKHYHUQDFXODU,QWKHIROORZLQJDGL൵HUHQWLDWLRQRIDUFKLWHFWXUHZLWKLQYHUQDFXODUV\VWHPVLV conducted by referring to "simple" vernacular structures and elite structures or structures of a higher social status. According to traditions and their continuous adaptation to changing local FRQGLWLRQVYHUQDFXODUSDWWHUQVRIDUFKLWHFWXUHFDQEHWUDQVIRUPHG\$O6D\\DG[YLLGH¿QHV a gradual change in vernacular architecture primarily as an adaption to geographic and economic FRQGLWLRQV\$QDGDSWDWLRQLVDOVRUHODWHGWRODQJXDJHWKDWGH¿QHVDUFKLWHFWXUDOFRPSRQHQWVZLWKLQ a vernacular social context.

9HUQDFXODUGHVLJQLVEDVHGRQORFDOPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHVDQGQDWXUDOO\JLYHQLQÀXHQFHV0HWKRGV in joining and processing the single parts of a building or artefact are carriers of symbolic meaning and vernacular LGHQWLW\5DSRSRUWPHQWLRQVDV\PEROLFDSSURDFKPDLQO\DSSURYHG in traditional cultures, where a built environment is able to express strong and clear schemata. Tapering of walls can be given as a Himalayan example. In Tibetan culture a method for stabilising walls and preventing them from tipping over towards the outside involves sloping from the bottom towards the top. In /KDVDZH¿QGWKLVPHWKRGDSSOLHGZLWKVWRQHZDOOVLQSpiti in Himachal Pradesh with rammed earth walls, and in Ladakh with adobe walls. Each material shows its own design pattern, which can be read via the surface of the wall. The static function of this WHFKQLTXH DQGWKH JHQHUDO DSSHDUDQFH UHPDLQ VLPLODU ZLWKLQWKH7LEHWDQ FXOWXUDO ]RQH Particularly Central Tibetan walls show a design pattern that results from the laying of the stones. The recognition value of this WHFKQLTXHLVKLJK2QHV\PEROLFH൵HFWRIWKLVWUDGLWLRQDOEXLOGLQJ method is its more powerful and fortress-like appearance, for example, the Potala in Lhasa. Size, location, colour and inter alia the tapering of walls denote a particular meaning and, in the words RI(FRDFWDVD³VLJQYHKLFOH´

5HJDUGLQJWKHGHVLJQRIYHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUH%URDGEHQW GLVWLQJXLVKHVEHtween "pragmatic design", "typical design", "analogical design" and "canonical (geometric) de-VLJQ´7KHVWDJHRI³SUDJPDWLFGHVLJQ´DVDVWDWHRIWULDODQGHUURULVWREHFODVVL¿HGDVSUHKLVWRU-LFDO7KHVWDJHRI³W\SLFDOGHVLJQ´ZKHUHWKHFRPPXQLW\VKDUHVSDUWLFXODULPDJHVLVDIUHTXHQW design aspect in the Himalayas that expresses vernacular design. On the other hand, the "canonical (geometric) design" concerns us in the context of universal, political and religious concepts WKDWDUHDOVRH[SUHVVHGLQGHVLJQ±LQDVSDWLDODQGFRQVWUXFWLYHFRQWH[W7RJRZLWK%URDGEHQW¶V GH¿QLWLRQWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQLVSODFHGZLWKLQWKHZLGH¿HOGEHWZHHQ³W\SLFDOGHVLJQ´DQG³canonical (geometric) design".

# I. UNIVERSAL CONCEPTS: ON THE MATERIALISATION OF A RELIGIO-POLITICAL PROGRAMME

In various cultures, political and religious ideologies found their expression in the manifestation of certain ideological programmes, and were canonically materialised in architecture. Such canonical patterns were best planned modularly and applicable throughout cultural zones. An aim of such an installation of a canonical programme is the spread of a certain ideology by manifestation of power and the representation of a related universal concept. Stek (2013: 345) discusses the VKDSLQJRIWKHPDWHULDOHQYLURQPHQWDFFRUGLQJWRSROLWLFDOSRZHUDQGUDLVHVLPSRUWDQWTXHVWLRQV IRUµFRPPRQODQJXDJHVDQGV\PEROVRIVXFFHVVYLFWRU\DQGGRPLQLRQ¶KLGGHQEHKLQGWKHXVHRI the materialisation of such programmes. An ideologic concept holds the whole programmatic system upright. For example, regarding the Tibetan house such concepts are prevalent in vernacular architecture, although dwellings of the social middle and lower class have to adapt to continuous FKDQJH /HKQHU 7KH DLP IRU FKDQJHOHVVQHVV DQGLPSHULVKDELOLW\ DUH SURJUDPPDWLF features of elite architecture (ibid. 20).

Based on a politically and religiously dominated architectural concept, a particular identity-es-WDEOLVKLQJGHVLJQSDWWHUQPD\EHUHJLRQDOO\H[WHQGHG±LQWHUDOLDWRH[WHQGDVSKHUHRILQÀXHQFH ,QWKHFDVH RI ދVLPSOHތ YHUQDFXODU VWUXFWXUHVWKHLUDSSHDUDQFHLVPXFK GHSHQGHQW RQORFDO UHsources, while in the case of representative monumental structures, e.g. monastic structures, material resources from outside the immediate vicinity may be preferred. Such elite architecture with wide-spread interrelations is adjusted to the spread of a particular cultural programme.

As a research example for the examination of the materialisation of an ideological programme, early Tibetan religious architecture was chosen and will be treated in this chapter. Analysis of religious structures of the imperial Central Tibetan period (7thWRth century) and of the early West Tibetan period (10th/11th century) uncovered several of such canonical typologies, which were locally applied in variations. In the Tibetan cultural zone, such concepts act in a universal manner and aim to combine terrestrial and celestial components. Before concentrating on various methods to materialise a particular Tibetan Buddhist programme in the imperial Central and early West Tibetan period, outlines of the religio-political programme will be given.

### ,ආඉൾඋංൺඅ&ൾඇඍඋൺඅ7ංൻൾඍൺඇඉൾඋංඈൽඍඁ±ඍඁ&ൾඇඍඎඋඒ&(

The structural and territorial organisation of the Tibetan imperial polity (7th±th century) is based upon an integration of old territories, which were headed by ruling families, who formed the core of the civil and military elite in the time of the Tibetan empire. The emperors, after having been VXFFHVVIXOLQIRUJLQJDIHGHUDWLRQZLWKWKHROGµOLQHDJH¶RUJDQLVHGIDPLOLHVH[SDQGHGWKHLUSRZHU E\PDUULDJHZLWKOLQHDJHVHQDEOLQJWKHPVHOYHVSROLWLFDOO\LQÀXHQWLDOSRVLWLRQV

Most likely Buddhism was not fully established during this early period, as can be seen in the form of pre-Buddhist burial rites practised during the imperial time. However, from the late 8th

Fig. 1.1 \*\DPD6XPPHUFDPSRIWKH7LEHWDQNLQJ ODQFHV 7KUHHJDWHV &HQWUDOSODWIRUP \$OWDU &\$'DXWKRU5HQGHULQJ)HUHQF=DPRO\L

century on, changes in the area of rituals and also externally in the form of *stupa*-shaped burial mounds (or also mounds with Buddhist clay tablets (Tib. *tsha tsha*) bricked in the walls) can be observed (cf. Feiglstorfer 2018).

### 1.1 Mobile camps and courtly assemblies

7KHHDUO\HPSHURUV¶UHVLGHQFHVODUJHO\FRQVLVWHGRImobile campsites (Tib. *pho brang*), where the emperor and his family resided. We know of courtly assemblies (Tib. *'dun ma*) that were held at various locations in Central Tibet. The example of Gyama (Tib. Rgya ma) appears to be the only one, where some reconstruction of the original design is possible on a textual source (namely the Tang Annals relating to the treaty ceremony held in 821 CE), where the campsite is mentioned as the principal summer camp of the Tibetan king (Tib. *btsan po*) (Hazod 2014: 21). The residence and campsite actually refer to the later centre of the Gyama myriarchy (Tib. Rgya ma khri khang).

Figure 1.1 provides a reconstruction of a surrounding enclosure that measured 100 long lances VHHQXPEHULQ)LJDWDGLVWDQFHRIWHQSDFHVLWKDGWKUHHJDWHVHDFKZLWKVWDQGDUGV in front and guarded by armed soldiers. The central platform (3) had high-ranking ministers sta-WLRQHGDWLWVIRRWDQGWKHHPSHURU¶VWHQWDWLWVWRS,QIURQWLQGLFDWHGZLWKQXPEHULVWKHDOWDU for oath taking, a ceremony headed by the Tibetan monk minister Pal Chenpo (Tib. Dpal chen po) DQGDFFRPSDQLHGE\DQLPDOVDFUL¿FH7KHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHUHVLGHQFHZKRVHJURXQGSODQLVWKH shape of a trapezium, was towards the north, facing orthogonally towards the Kyichu (Tib. Skyid FKX5LYHU+D]RG

Map 1.1 Central Tibet. The Four Horns.

GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

### 1.2 Towards monastic establishments

Until the establishment of monasteries, the *lhakhang*s (Tib. *lha khang*, "temple") were related to the court, i.e. to a small elite group of people. The early imperial establishment of four provinces, the Four Horns (Tib. *ru*18 (*bzhi*) *gnon* HQFRPSDVVHVWKH HPSLUH¶VWHUULWRULDO FRUH\$WHUULWRULDO division of the Central,/HIWDQG5LJKW+RUQIRUPHGWKH¿UVW+RUQV\VWHP'RWVRQ 7KH¿UVWHYLGHQFHRIWKH&HQWUDO+RUQLVJLYHQLQ&(DQGWKH+RUQVWRJHWKHUDUHPHQWLRQHG ¿UVWLQ &(8UD\%\VXSSUHVVLRQRIWKHGHPRQLFWHUULWRU\DV\PEROLFFHQWUH ZDVV\PEROLFDOO\VWDELOLVHGDQGWKHWHUULWRU\RIWKHHPSLUHGH¿QHG,WVWHUULWRULDOH[WHQVLRQLVH[- SUHVVHGE\WKHVXSSUHVVLRQRIWKH+RUQV+D]RG6¡UHQVHQ

The erection of four "Temples Taming the Border" (Tib. *mtha 'dul gyi gtsug lag khang*) is a ma-WHULDOLVDWLRQRIDWHUULWRULDOGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHHPSLUH7KHERUGHUprotecting temples of the Four Horns (Tib. Ru bzhi)20 erected under 6RQJWVHQ\*DPSR±DUHDVIROORZV(see Map 1.1):

<sup>18</sup> According to Tsering Gyalpo, the Tibetan word for horn *"ru"*, which serves as the name for an administrative territorial division, is related to the life of nomadic people in Tibet. It designates the point at the top of the four pillars, ZKHUHWKHEODFNWHQWLV¿[HGZLWKDURSHHYLGHQFHE\&KULVWLDQ-DKRGDLQ

The Central Horn was the core region, containing many of the regularly visited imperial residence and council SODFHVLQWKLVUHJLRQLWZDVPRVWO\XVHGDVDVXPPHUGZHOOLQJ+D]RG

<sup>20</sup> The list of geomantic temples contains three versions with four central temples in order to suppress shoulders and hips (version 1) or the four limbs (version 2). The four mentioned central temples follow version 1 (Hazod, 6¡UHQVHQ±

7DQGUXN7LE.KUD¶EUXJLQWKH/HIW+RUQ7LE\*\RUXKatsel (Tib. Ka rtsal) in the Central Horn (Tib. Dbu ru), 7VDQJ'UDP7LE\*WVDQJ¶JUDPLQWKH5LJKW+RUQ7LE\*\DVUXDQGWKH Drompa Gyang (Tib. Grom pa rgyang) Temple in Tsang (Tib. Gtsang), in the area of the Lhatse (Tib. Lha rtse) District of the Additional Horn (i.e. Tib. Ru lag). A later anthropomorphisation integrated these early border taming temples as the two shoulders and the two hips, which were part of the mythological taming process of the supine demoness imagined as covering the Tibetan territory. With the foundation of twelve (or more) border *vihƗra*s with the Lhasa Jokhang in the centre, the body of a demoness (Tib. *srin mo*, Skt. *UƗN܈DVƯ*) depicting the Tibetan territory was nailed down (Hazod et al. 2005b: 5).

Beginning with 7ULVRQJ'HWVHQ7LE.KULVURQJOGH¶XEWVDQXQGHUZKRPDPLQLVWHUIRUUHOLJLRXV purposes was introduced, assembly places were established for a religious purpose. This had SUREDEO\EHHQGRQHVLQFHWKHIRXQGDWLRQRIWKH¿UVW7LEHWDQPRQDVWHU\DWSamye.21 According to 'XQNDUG]LJG]|&KHQPRGLFWLRQDU\7LE'XQJGNDUWVKLJPG]RGFKHQPRWKLVPRQDVWHU\EHlongs to the *chökhor sum* (Tib. *chos 'khor gsum*), the three *chökhor* Samye (Tib. Bsam yas), Lhasa (Tib. *Lha sa*) and Tandruk 7LE.KUD¶EUXJ'XQJNDU7KHVH*chökhor* share a common ancient festival tradition, i.e. the ")ORZHU2൵HULQJ" festival (Tib. Me tog mchod pa22)*.* They are part of ")LYH\*UHDW2൵HULQJV" of Central Tibet, including 7DQGUXN&K|SD7LE.KUD¶EUXJPFKRG pa), /KDVD&KRQJD&K|SD7LE/KDVDEFROQJDPFKRGSD6DP\H'RGH&K|SD7LE%VDP\DV PGRVGHPFKRGSD\*XQJWKDQJ0HWRJ&K|SD7LE\*XQJWKDQJPHWRJPFKRGSDDQG1DPJDQJ &K|SD7LE\*QDPJDQJPFKRGSDRI/R+D]RGE

<sup>21</sup> The foundation of 6DP\H0RQDVWHU\DVDUR\DOWHPSOHPD\KDYHEHHQLQÀXHQFHGE\WKHXVHRIVXPPHUDQGZLQWHU court sites in Bälpo (Tib. Bal po) and Dragmar (Tib. Brag dmar), respectively, for many years during the reign of 7ULWVXJ'HWVHQ7LE.KUL\*WVXJOGHEWVDQWRF&('RWVRQ

<sup>22</sup> The *Me tog mchod pa* (Tib.) was a great public festival including a *cham* (Tib. *'cham*) performance with the pres-HQFHRIWKHORFDOGLJQLWDULHV+D]RGE

Fig. 1.3 Ground plans of *chökhor* main temples from left to right: Samye, Tholing, Nyarma and Tabo. Development of the position of the assembly hall. 6DP\HDIWHU\$&3DQG&KD\HWTholing after ACP (2007: 46). Cf. Feiglstorfer 2011b: 36.

Money for the upholding of monasteries was collected from lay people via payment of taxes. This ZDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHGRQDWLRQRIUR\DOODQGDQGWKH\LHOGZDVXVHGIRUPRQDVWHU\PDLQWH-QDQFHDQG¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWIRUHDFKLQGLYLGXDOPRQN7KLVLVPHQWLRQHGIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQWKH case of Samye23 (Dba¶ bzhed 2000: 74, 75). Already during 6RQJWVHQ\*DPSR ±ODQG was given to vassals, the so-called *"dren"* (Tib. *bran*5RQJH7KHLGHDRIHVWDEOLVKLQJ sacred centres for the study of the *dharma*±ZKLFKIROORZV7KULVRQJ'HWVHQ¶VUXOHGLQWKHnd half of the 8th century CE) adaptation of Buddhism as the religion of the court in 761/762 (Kapstein ±DQGWKHLGHDRIHQDEOLQJUHOLJLRXVJDWKHULQJVEURXJKWDERXWDFKDQJHLQDUFKLWHFWXUDO FRQFHSWV7KHFRQFHSWRIWKHRSHQ,QGLDQLQÀXHQFHG*YLKƗUD*FRXUW\DUG±DVIRXQGLQWKHJokhang of Lhasa (Tib. ¶Phrul snang) or the temple of Tandruk (Fig. 1.2) ±ZDVFKDQJHG into the concept of the roofed assembly hall (Tib. *'du khang*). The *dukhang* became successively standardised with the foundation of the Samye Monastery in Central Tibet and in succession in the layout of the early West Tibetan monasteries. This change in architecture of the assembly space (Fig. 1.3) VLJQL¿HVWKHSURYLVLRQRIDQDSSURSULDWHW\SHRIVSDFHIRUVXFKJDWKHULQJVFRPSOHWHO\GH¿QHGDVD sacred space, and including the *dukhang*LQWRDSURSRUWLRQDOO\DQGJHRPHWULFDOO\GH¿QHGVXSHULRU UHOLJLRXVSURJUDPPH)HLJOVWRUIHUE൵

In contrast, in the early West Tibetan system of the 10th/11th centuries, the newly founded monasteries were not linked to the court but functioned as institutions of central importance for the West Tibetan kingdom, not only in religious terms, but on account of their role within a superior UHOLJLRSROLWLFDOFRQFHSW7KHGHEXWRIWKLVGHYHORSPHQWFDQEHHTXDOO\IRXQGZLWKWKHIRXQGDWLRQ of Samye in 775 CE. As seen in Samye, in the late 8thHDUO\th century, 0DKƗYDLURFDQDDSSHDUVWR KDYHEHFRPHWKHFHQWUDOUHOLJLRXV¿JXUHLQDQHZVWDWHFXOWLQCentral 7LEHW5LFKDUGVRQ The emperor himself appears to be homologous with Vairocana, bringing the ordering of the

<sup>23</sup> According to *Sba* ¶*bzhed* (2000: 74, 75), for the maintenance of the monastic community of Samye, seven subjecthouseholds were assigned by the emperor to each monk.

empire in relation to the generation of a *PD۬ڲDOD*.DSVWHLQFI)HLJOVWRUIHUGHnoting and underlying as a conceptual principle the course of Tibetan politics.

### (ൺඋඅඒ:ൾඌඍ7ංൻൾඍൺඇඉൾඋංඈൽඍඁ/11ඍඁർൾඇඍඎඋඒ

The foundation of the West Tibet kingdom by .\LGH1LPDJ|Q 7LE6N\LGOGH1\LPDPJRQ ± K\SRWKHWLFDO DIWHU -DKRGD DQG .DODQWDUL IQ ± ZKR RULJLQDWHG IURPWKH &HQWUDO7LEHWDQUR\DOIDPLO\9LWDOL±WRJHWKHUZLWKPLQLVWHUVEHORQJLQJWRDULVWRFUDWLF clans, took place at the beginning of the 10th century (cf. Jahoda, Kalantari 2016: 80). This kingdom seems to have been conceived as a "continuation of the grand empire", which is also suggested by the name "1JDUL´LHWRGD\¶VGHVLJQDWLRQRIWestern 7LEHW\$IWHU1LPDJ|Q¶VGHDWKWKH kingdom was divided under his three sons, who received Purang, Guge and Maryul (Maps 1.2 and 1.3) as well as minor areas such as Spiti, =DQJVNDUDQGGarsha (or /DKDXO9LWDOL 160). There is little evidence for the presence of Buddhism in Western Tibet before this time. The inscribed stone stele in Chogro Village in Purang is probably the earliest evidence of Buddhism LQWKLVUHJLRQ-DKRGD3DSD.DODQWDUL-DKRGD.DODQWDUL

The fact that 7DVKLJ|Q 7LE%NUD VKLVPJRQ ERUQLQWKH HDUO\ nd TXDUWHU RIWKH th centu-U\ -DKRGD .DODQWDUL  LV PHQWLRQHG DV KDYLQJ GRQDWHG DChampa (Tib. Byams pa, Skt. Maitreya) to the temple in <XGUD 7LE\*\X VJUD 9LWDOL ZKLFKLVORFDWHG RQWKH Mapcha (Rma bya, lit. "Peacock") River, indicates the practice of Buddhism in Western Tibet before <HVKHgUHQRXQFHGWKHWKURQHLQIDYRXURIKLVEURWKHULQ&(FI9LWDOLKyide 1LPDJ|QLVDOVRPHQWLRQHGLQ7LEHWDQKLVWRULRJUDSKLFDOVRXUFHVDVEXLOGHURIIRUWUHVVHVDQGFDVtles such as Rala Khamar (Tib. Ra la mkhar dmar) and Tshetho Gyari (Tib. Rtse tho rgya ri).

These fortresses may have constituted the earliest foundations within the West Tibetan empire. 7KHPDLQVHDWRIWKHHPSLUHGXULQJ1LPDJ|QXQWLOWKHGLYLVLRQRIWKHHPSLUHZDVNyisung (Tib. 1\LE]XQJ9LWDOL/DWHUGXULQJ.KRUH7LE.KRUUHUHJ±&(FI9LWDOL WKHPDMRUSROLWLFDOFHQWUHRIWKHNLQJGRPFKDQJHGWRKardung (Tib. Dkar dung) in Purang, and in the 13th century to \*\DOWL7LE5J\DOWLLELG\*\DOWL¶VIRXQGDWLRQSRVVLEO\DOVRUHIHUV EDFNWRDQHDUOLHUSHULRGLELG

,Q DGGLWLRQ WR WKH UR\DO G\QDVW\ DULVWRFUDWLF FODQV ± VXFK DV WKHChogro (Tib. Cog ro) clan, the possible descendant of the mother of Rinchen Sangpo, or the 'UR 7LE ¶%URFODQZKRVH PHPEHUV PD\ KDYH PDQDJHG WR SUHVHUYH WKHLU LQÀXHQFH RYHU DUHDV XQGHU WKHLU FRQWURO IURP

Map 1.2 (Left) Historical Western Tibet.

GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author.

Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

Map 1.3 (Right) Purang. Detail of Historical Western Tibet (Map 1.2). GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

pre-imperial &HQWUDO7LEHWDQWLPHV±H[HUWHGFRQVLGHUDEOHLQÀXHQFHZLWKLQWKHWest Tibetan king-GRP9LWDOLIUHPDUNVRQWKH'URFODQVHH9LWDOLIQ<sup>24</sup>

6HYHUDO HPSHURUV¶ UHVLGHQWLDO IRXQGDWLRQV DUH UHODWHG WR WKH th century period of historical Western Tibet.25 Kukar 1\LVXQJ7LE6NXPNKDUQ\LE]XQJIRXQGDWLRQ&(DIWHU9LWDOL IORFDWHGLQ8SSHU3XUDQJLVUHODWHGWR1LPDJ|QDQGZDVDOVRXVHGDVDUHVLGHQFHRUUR\DO palace by KLVVRQ7DVKLJ|Q9LWDOL,WLVPHQWLRQHGDVDQLQHVWRUH\EXLOGLQJSRVVLEO\ meant as a family tower. In Guge, Khartse Chiwang Namgyel (Tib. Mkhar rtse phyi dbang rnam UJ\DOLVDOVRDWWULEXWHGWR1LPDJ|Q%HOOH]]DDVZHOODVWKUHHIRUWUHVVHVWRWKHVRXWKZHVW of Tholing (the Upper, Lower and Middle Fortress). The monastic complex to the north of the Lower Fortress (Tib. *mkhar 'og ma*) further down the hill is related to 7DVKLJ|Q26 the father of Yeshe Ö.

µ0RELOH¶UXOHUVDQGreligious gathering places

Also in Western Tibet, hereby continuing similar earlier practices of Central Tibet, assemblies of leading members of the royal family or branches were held in order to agree upon major political GHFLVLRQV\$WVXFKDPHHWLQJWKDWWRRNSODFHLQLQPurang, the foundation of a temple (Tib. *gtsug lag khang*) in the castle of Kyaru (Tib. Skya ru mkhar) was decided on by Yeshe Ö alias 7ULVRQJ7VXQJWVHQ7LE.KULVGHVURQJEWVXJEWVDQ\*3FI-DKRGD\$FFRUGLQJ WR9LWDOLWKHPagam Chamnyom Ling (Tib. Pa sgam byams snyoms gling) Hermitage ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQDWPekhar (Tib. Spe mkhar) in Rumyül (Tib. Rum yul) of Chogla (Tib. Cog la) for a *molla* (Tib. *mol ba*), which is a decision-making gathering of the leading members of the royal dynasty (Jahoda 2016). After being ordained, ruler Song nge (Tib. 6RQJQJH± DIWHU-DKRGD.DODQWDULIQ'URQJVKDU-DKRGDZDVNQRZQDVWKHUR\DO/DPD Yeshe Ö. To some degree, he can still be regarded as a "mobile" ruler, at least until the late 10th century. According to the record of places under his control and those he visited over the course of many years until the turn of the millennium, it is clear that he was not associated with just one residence during this time.27 Mobility, which eliminated the need for the king to settle at only


Fig. 1.4 Khorchag. Namtong festival. Dorje Chenmo riding on her horse in all directions.

one permanent residence, allowed him to show his physical presence at various places within the NLQJGRP:LWKWKHIRXQGDWLRQRIPRQDVWLFHVWDEOLVKPHQWVLQ&(WKHUHFUXLWPHQWRI\RXQJ YLOODJHPHQIRUPRQDVWLFVHUYLFHVWDUWHG9LWDOL7KLVIDFWLVVLJQL¿FDQWIRUKLVSRZHU as royal Lama, as such he was obviously acting as ruler over a religious dominion.

### 2.2 Protecting temples

The demoness, spanning over Central 7LEHWZDV¿[HGZLWKFHUWDLQWHPSOHVZLWKVHYHUDOWHPSOHV acting as border protecting temples (as mentioned before). Similar to Central Tibet, in Western Tibet border protecting temples from the early West Tibetan period are also known. They mark the areas of possibly hostile aggressors, particularly along the western border towards Kunu, along the Sutlej and the Karnali. They were strengthened with temples in Kanam in the historical region of Nara, and with temples in Ropa, Mona and Poo located in Ronchung, with the later also having a palace for royal residence, and in Tsawagang in Purang. The temple at Tiyag associated with Rinchen Sangpo may also belong to these ancient border protecting temples (today located about 15 km from the present Indian border).

Dorje Chenmo, riding on her horse in all directions, suppressing the demons and clearing the space below the monastery, as observed at the Namtong festival at Khorchag (Fig. 1.4), took over the role of a great protectress and was associated with all major early royal foundations of monasteries. Rituals dedicated to her are known from various places all over the area of historical Western Tibet.

### 2.3 A religio-political programme

The monastic sites of Nyarma in Maryul, Khorchag in Purang and Tholing in Guge follow a particular architectural concept, which allows to bring the whole kingdom together under one superior religious programme. This programme follows a main characteristic for the all-including religious doctrine under YeshegVXERUGLQDWLQJWKHZKROHFRXQWU\¶VSROLWLFDODGPLQLVWUDWLRQ7KH Central Tibetan monastic idea of the *chökhor* as a *dharma*-related facility for religious assemblies

Fig. 1.5 Khorchag. Layout of the monastery. 1 = /KDNKDQJ&KHQPR Jokhang. Layout of structures based on: Google Earth, DigitalGlobe © 2016. Cf. Feiglstorfer 2017a.

was continued in the early West Tibetan foundations. It was seen as a sacred place for the study of the doctrine as well as for major conferences in the following years, e.g. Tholing in 1076 (Vitali 

According to legend, the famous Jowo silver statue of Khorchag Monastery was ordered by Khore to be cast in Sher in Lower Purang with the aim of being errected in the Serkhar Tsuglagkhang (Tib. Gser mkhar gtsug lag khang), the courtly fortress temple in Kardung. While being transported to Kardung, the statue refused to move and and remained on an *amolika* stone. This stone base was surrounded by a *lhakhang* as the central core of the .KRUFKDJ0RQDVWHU\3UDQDYƗQDQGD 9LWDOL IQ 7KH IRXQGDWLRQ RIWKHKhorchag Monastery describes a separation of a monastic complex from the imperial residence (Fig. 1.5) and the religio-political centre of Purang. Similar to the legend of the silver statue of .KRUFKDJ±ZKLFKVKRXOGKDYHEHHQ

brought to the *lhakhang*RIWKHNLQJ¶VUHVLGHQFHKLJKDERYHRQWKHKLOO±WKHIRUPHUPDLQVWDWXHRI 7KROLQJ9LWDOLDĝƗN\DPXQL%XGGKDZDVEURXJKWXSLQWRWKH*lhakhang* of the palace, located on the hill to the south-east of the monastery.28

Three protecting Buddhas are each associated with one of the three earliest monastery foundations. Maitreya is associated with Khorchag, ĝƗN\DPXQLZLWKTholing,30 and 'ƯSDূNDUDZLWK Nyarma.317KH\FDQEHLGHQWL¿HGDVDWULQLW\RIWKH)XWXUH3UHVHQWDQG+LVWRULFDO%XGGKD32 Based upon information contained in the Biography of Yeshe Ö,33 this trinity spans and combines the three domains of the whole West Tibetan kingdom or "1JDUL.RUVXP´7LE6WRG0QJD¶ULVVNRU gsum) (Feiglstorfer 2021b: 225).

### 3. 5ංඍඎൺඅඌඉൺർൾൺඇൽඌൺർඋൾൽඉඅൺඇ

'H¿QLQJ UHOLJLRXV VWUXFWXUHV XVLQJ canonical patterns is a globally known method. It ensures recognition value within a particular religious community and the possibility of application of FHUWDLQ UHOLJLRXV SUDFWLFHVLQ D UHJLRQDO FRQWH[W\$QLPSRUWDQW TXHVWLRQ FRQFHUQV DUFKLWHFWRQLF patterns being applied as representation of a particular religio-political elite, which is strongly related to the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. What architectonic features and planning tools within a Tibetan Buddhist culture were applied to the embedding of early religious sanctuaries in a ritual context? Concerning this matter, FDQRQLFDOIHDWXUHVDUHUHOHYDQWLQ¿QGLQJDQDQVZHU7KLV includes a particular geometric and proportional order, a general spatial organisation, and tools of JHRPDQWLFGLYLQDWLRQ±IHDWXUHVWKDWGLVWLQJXLVKUHOLJLRXVIURPދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUH Further, the use of certain materials also implicates the representation of a higher social status.


<sup>28</sup> According to Tsering Gyalpo, a red temple (Tib. Lha khang dmar po) had already existed below the so-called "Middle Fortress" before the foundation of the *tsuglagkhang* by Yeshe Ö. According to oral tradition, which ZDVUHFRUGHGE\7VHULQJ\*\DOSRDURXQGWKHPDLQFXOWVWDWXHORRNHGOLNHDXQLTXHFRORVVDODQGODUJHUWKDQ life-size Buddha 'ƯSDূNDUDVWDWXH,WLVVDLGWKDWVRPHWLPHDIWHUWKHIRXQGDWLRQRIWKH*dukhang* of Tholing (also Dzamling Gyen), this statue was invited to this temple and placed in its *cella* (evidence by Christian Jahoda and after a personal conversation of him with Tsering Gyalpo in 2006). Among or in addition to the three larger than life-sized Buddha statues assigned to the past, present and future (Skt. 'ƯSDূNDUDĝƗkyamuni, 0DLWUH\D±ZKLFK existed in the main temples of Nyarma, Tholing and .KRUFKDJUHVSHFWLYHO\±RQHQRWDEOHRQHVWRUH\KLJKVWDWXH of 'ƯSDূNDUD7LE0DUPHPG]DGZDVSODFHGLQWKHPDLQWHPSOHRI7KROLQJ9LWDOL

<sup>32</sup> In an e-mail exchange with Christian Jahoda (June 2016), he hypothetically mentions Maitreya, 'ƯSDূNDUD and Tholing in relation to the monasteries of Khorchag, Nyarma and Tholing as a possible concept of a trinity.

<sup>33</sup> 0DLWUH\DDVWKHPDLQ¿JXUHLQKhorchag, is mentioned in the biography of Yeshe Ö (Drongshar, Jahoda 2021). Also posed was the idea that 'ƯSDূNDUD ZDV WKH FHQWUDO ¿JXUH LQNyarma and that in the centre of Tholing Tsuglagkhang there was a ĝƗN\DPXQL7LE%VWDQSD¶LJWVRERVWDWXHFI9LWDOLIQ

7KHWHPSOHDQGWKHPRQDVWLFFRPSRXQGDUHSDUWRIDVDFUHGODQGVFDSHGH¿QHGE\FHUWDLQPDUNHUV of worship. In the early imperial phase in Central 7LEHWWKH7LEHWDQWHUULWRU\LVGH¿QHGZLWKWKH twelve immovable bolts pinning down a demoness on Tibet. These bolts are materialised by the so-called "border taming temples" (Hazod et al. 2005b: 5). Within this Tibetan territory, several DUFKLWHFWXUDOVWUXFWXUHVSRLQWWRZDUGVDQHDUO\GH¿QLWLRQRIDTXDGULSDUWLWHFRQFHSWDVDNLQGRI spatial order. An example is the erection of four 5LJVXP\*|QSR7LE5LJVJVXPPJRQSRSURWHF-WRUFKDSHOVFI)HLJOVWRUIHUDIQDURXQGWKHFHQWUHRILhasa into the four cardinal directions during the rule of emperor Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. These protector chapels mark a pentalic system in Lhasa, with the Jokhang Temple as its centre. Later, four further chap-HOVZHUHLQVWDOOHGDWDQHTXLGLVWDQFHDORQJWKHLQWHUPHGLDWHGLUHFWLRQV7LE*mtshams*) (Alexander 7KHFHQWUDOWHPSOHRIWKLVFRQVWHOODWLRQLVWKHJokhang in Lhasa, which is also the centre of four monk congregations (Tib. *dge 'dun gyi sde*HUHFWHGLQWKHth century (Sørensen 2007: 401). They were built as chapels for the purpose of religious services to the Jokhang (ibid.). The TXDGULSDUWLWHVFKHPHGH¿QHGE\WKHIRXULhasa *deshi* (Tib. Lha sa *sde bzhi*ODWHUNQRZQDVWKH Four Horns / Banners or the Lha sa ru bzhi) is a centre-periphery, originally cosmogonic, model (Sørensen 2007: 411). Around the Jokhang as the centre point, a so-called "/KDVD0DঌDOD]RQH" (Tib. Lha sa dkyil ¶khor steng) was developed in the 11th century and demarcated by four moun-WDLQV+D]RG6¡UHQVHQ7KHWHUPKyilkhor ding (Tib. *dkyil 'khor steng*) used for the courtyard of the -RNKDQJ6¡UHQVHQIQUHIHUVWRLWVFHQWUHSRVLWLRQDVDFRVPRFHQtric concept.

An early pentalic monastic model of cosmogonic nature can already be found in the concept of 6DP\HWKH ¿UVW7LEHWDQPRQDVWHU\ IRXQGHGLQ F &(7KLV IROORZV DWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOO\ PDWHULDOLVHGUHOLJLRXVSURJUDPPH,WZDVDVDZKROHDUFKLWHFWXUDOO\H൵HFWXDWHGZLWKWKHVTXDUHDV the intended basic geometrical shape of the general layout (Feiglstorfer 2011b: 216). In this architecture the trapezoid as a basic design feature is already completely absent. Such intermedial and pentalically organised layouts can be found at several early Tibetan religious structures, besides the monastery of Samye in Central Tibet also at several monasteries in historical Western Tibet. Early West Tibetan examples include the geometrical constellation of the *tsuglagkhang*s (Tib. *gtsug lag khang*, "main temple") of Tholing, of Old Khartse (Fig. 1.6) or of Tabo. In these layouts the *tsuglagkhang* is situated in the geometrical centre, and the four corner *chorten*GH¿QHWKHRXWHU boundary again surrounded by an enclosure wall.

In the example of Tholing, the *tsuglagkhang* (also known as Gyatsa due to the fact that it forms an enclosure around a multitude of small surrounding *lhakhang*s) shows four integrated corner *chorten* along its outer boundary, and four further *chorten* on the same intermedial axes, with the latter detached from the built structure. Vitali describes this design as a possible arrangement of two interlaced *PD۬ڲDOD*V 9LWDOL\$QRYHUOD\ZLWKDSURJUDPPDWLFDOO\pentalic VWUXFWXUH±DVFDQEHIRXQGLQWKHIRXU%XGGKDIDPLOLHVDURXQG9DLURFDQD±EHFRPHVREYLRXVLQ certain early *tsuglagkhang*s*,* like at Tholing or Nyarma, but appears in a further design, which may have to do with a change of the religious programme. In contrast, at early *tsuglagkhang*s, having Vairocana as part of the central religious programme does not necessarily mean a pentalic design as stated at the *tsuglagkhang* of Tabo.34 In this structure the central statue is Vairocana, but WKHVXUURXQGLQJIRXU%XGGKDIDPLOLHVKDYHQRWEHHQFRQVWUXFWLYHO\GH¿QHGE\FDUGLQDOO\SURMHFWing niches (as is the case at Tholing or Nyarma).

Following local variations, various canonical patterns were applied at early Tibetan monasteries. A general feature is the repeating use of such patterns over a preferably wide area within a SDUWLFXODU UHOLJLRSROLWLFDO SURJUDPPH&RQWUDU\WR ދVLPSOHތ YHUQDFXODU DQG VHFXODU VWUXFWXUHV canonical structures carry a certain aim for representative cultivation over a wide territory. In 7LEHWDQUHJLRQVVHFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUHLVGL൶FXOWWRGHWDFKIURPDUHOLJLRXVFRQWH[W%XGGKLVWEHOLHI GH¿QHVSDUWLFXODUULWXDOSUDFWLFHVVXFKDVFLUFXPDPEXODWLRQZKLFKLQWHUZHDYHVDFWLYLWLHVRIGDLO\ life with religious rites and related architectural infrastructure, such as temples in public spaces or private houses.

One of the main drivers for conducting certain deeds that within the Buddhist community have positive connotation, is gaining merits for reincarnation within *VDۨVƗUD*, the cycle of rebirth. Any GRQDWLRQWRWKHPRQDVWHU\±EHLWLQWKHIRUPRIODQGE\DQHPSHURUWKHIRUPRIEXWWHUE\SLOJULPV WKHHUHFWLRQRIUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVRUFLUFXPDPEXODWLRQDURXQGVXFKVWUXFWXUHV±LVGRQHWRJDLQ PHULWVIRURQH¶VIXWXUH7KLV%XGGKLVWDWWLWXGHVKDSHVWKH%XGGKLVWFXOWXUHDQGSRVLWLRQVLWVVLQJOH components within a spiritual overall standing religious programme. In this concern, the design RIDUFKLWHFWXUDOFRPSRQHQWVDQGWKHPDWHULDODQGVSDWLDOGH¿QLWLRQVXWLOLVHGDUHVXEMHFWHGWRWKH religious programme. In this context, artefacts designed within a Tibetan Buddhist community are connected with particular ritual practices. The ritual of circumambulation is focused on a FHQWUDOLVWLFFRQFHSWZLWKDVXUURXQGLQJFRQFHQWULFVWUXFWXUH7KHULWXDODQGWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKH

<sup>34</sup> An example of idealisation of a pentalic structure based on a religious programme is even evident at the Candi Sewu Temple (8th century CE) in Java. This temple is representative of a tantric development in the 8thDQGth centuries. The pentalic structure also seems to have been used as an ideological basis for particular South Asian political systems (cf. Feiglstorfer 2013).

UHODWHGFRQFHQWULFVSDFHDUHGHSHQGHQWRQHDFKRWKHUDQGWKHFHQWUDOSLYRWLVPDWHULDOO\GH¿QHG for instance, by a votive object or on an immaterial philosophical level. An example would be 0RXQW6XPHUXLQWKH\$EKLGKDUPDVDPXFFD\D\$VDৄJD\$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVSKLORVRSKLcal treatise, the world is described as a container based on concentric circles of atmosphere, water, and earth, with Mount Sumeru located in the centre. Mount Sumeru is surrounded by seven mountains, four continents, eight intermediate islands, the inner and outer oceans and a circular mountain chain (Skt. *FDNUDYƗڲDSDUYDWD*JLUGOLQJWKHHDUWK>«@FI)HLJOVWRUIHUD7KLV philosophical interpretation of the universe is geometrically based on concentrical rings, with Mount Sumeru as the central pivot.

The layout of the geometrically centralised early Tibetan monastic structures as mentioned before is also organised in concentric horizontal layers. Towards the centre, the structure increases in height. The earth in the philosophical model is protected by a circular mountain chain, which correlates with the function of an enclosure wall (Tib. *lcags ri*). This wall appears as an important architectonic feature in the form of enclosure walls, which were erected around early Tibetan *tsuglagkhang*s, such as at Samye, Tholing, Tabo or Nyarma. The enclosure wall itself is again incorporated in the system of circumambulation paths.

In an architectural concept, circumambulation is the behavioural materialisation of a concentric OD\RXW'L൵HUHQWFLUFXPDPEXODWLRQSDWKV ZKLFKZLOOEHPHQWLRQHGLQGHWDLOLQWKH IROORZLQJ OHDGDURXQGDFHQWUDOFRUHDQGDUHGH¿QHGDV*nangkor* (Tib. *nang skor*), i.e. the inner circumambulation path, the *barkor* (Tib. *bar skor*), i.e. the middle circumambulation path, the *chikor* (Tib. *phyi skor*), i.e. the outer circumambulation path, the *tsekor* (Tib. *rtse skor*), which is to be found as a path leading around the district of Marpori in Lhasa (Larsen, Sinding-Larsen 2001: 77), and the *lingkor* (Tib. *gling skor*), which describes the outermost circumambulation around a sacred district.

Samye Monastery is a rigorously organised sacred space and was built from the centre concentrically towards the outer periphery. Monastic functions and ritual movement along particular paths DUH GH¿QHG E\WKHDUFKLWHFWXUDO ERG\\$PXWXDOLQWHUIHUHQFH EHWZHHQWKLV NLQG RIPDWHULDOLVHG ritual space and the user determines its organisation. An early West Tibetan example is the *tsuglagkhang* of Nyarma, which is organised by interlaced concentric walls in a horizontal as well as YHUWLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQ)HLJOVWRUIHU\$FFRUGLQJWRDQDFFRXQWE\-RVHSK\*HUJDQIURP 35WKHDUFKLWHFWRQLFSURJUDPPHRIWKLVWHPSOHFRQIRUPVWRWKHIRXUGL൵HUHQWSDWKVRISLO-JULPV¶FLUFXPDPEXODWLRQV)HLJOVWRUIHUEI7KHVLQJOHSDUWVRIWKHEXLOGLQJDUHDWWXQHG ZLWKWKH FLUFXPDPEXODWLRQ URXWH RIWKH SLOJULP DQG YLFH YHUVD ±WKXV GH¿QLQJ DQLQVHSDUDEOH LQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQDUFKLWHFWXUDOVSDFHDQGSLOJULPV¶ULWXDOPRYHPHQWV

Additions to these early concentric layouts specify the development of the sacred space up to the present, and as a result still show the circumambulation rituals of the devotees. The pilgrim is aligned to and integrated in a superior sacred space. Today, in Nyarma, one remaining *nangkor* still circumambulates the *tsuglagkhang* and the adjoining lake (Fig. 1.8). Over the course of time, the concentric temple structure has expanded with the growth of the surrounding sacred and residential structures, basically integrating into the landscape all the *yülsa* (Tib. *yul sa*), *chökhang*s (Tib. *mchod khang*, "family prayer room" or "shrine room") in local residences and various markers of the sacred territory used for worship. The *lingkor* at Nyarma, i.e. the outer circumambula-WLRQSDWKLVGH¿QHGE\YDULRXVVXFKPDUNHUVRIZRUVKLSWREHH[SODLQHGLQWKHIROORZLQJ7KH URXWHLWVHOILVORFDOO\NQRZQDQGFDQEHZDONHGDORQJGL൵HUHQWSDWKV7KH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHURXWH leads through the village towards the west, passing a lake, the fortress, a Buddha stone relief and a streamlet, which leads north along the Hemis-Leh road. This path passes another Buddha stone relief and a *chorten* group and leads up to the Thikse Monastery, which is located opposite the Nyarma Monastery at the northern pole of this route. From here two routes lead back south along the second half of the route to the 1\DUPD0RQDVWHU\2QHSDVVHVWKURXJKGHVHUWODQG¿QDOO\ leading to *chorten* and *chorten* groups, and to the lake inside the former *chökhor* (which today is in ruins). The second route that runs a little further west, more or less between cultivated and desert land, passes ruins of lhakhang*s*, *chorten* and *chorten*JURXSVWKH IRRWRIDFOL൵ZLWKWKH *lhatho* on top, the fortress, a *mani* wall, a cemetery and a 5LJVXP\*|QSR7LE5LJVJVXPPJRQ po) before arriving back at the *nangkor*. This second route passes a variety of historical religious structures, many of them being in ruins. Partially this route overlaps with the *öngskor* (Tib. *ҴRQJ ҴNKRU*), which is in Ladakh known as *bumskor* (cf. Feiglstorfer 2021a and Forthcoming).

A similar constellation of a concentrically organised sacred space can be found in Tabo, with the *nangkor* and the *barkor* relating to the temple structure including its surrounding wall (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011b: 47, 48). The *tsekor*LVGH¿QHGE\DQHZ*chorten*, a new monastery, the *chorten* RIWKH6HUNKXQJ5LQSRFKHWKHQHZPRQNVကKRVWHODURZRI*chorten* and a monastery enclosure wall. The outermost *korlam* (Tib. *skor lam*), the *lingkor*LVGH¿QHGE\VHYHUDO*chorten*, *yülsa*, a

<sup>35</sup> This concept was presented together with Christian Jahoda at the EASAA conference in 2010 in Vienna.

Fig. 1.8 Nyarma. Circumambulation routes marked by religious objects and places, with the *chökhor* located in the south and the 7KLNVH0RQDVWHU\LQWKHQRUWK0DSEDVHGRQ\*RRJOH(DUWK,PDJH0D[DU7HFKQRORJLHVDQG Image © CNES / Airbus (see Feiglstorfer 2021a: 160).

cave temple *gompa*DQGWKH7VFKDJVDODQJ&KRUWHQZKLFKLVLQWKH¿UVWSRVLWLRQ)URPKHUHLW is possible to see the monastery and remains of a 108-*stupa* wall. One may describe this kind of VDFUHGVSDFHDVDV\VWHPRIFLUFXPDPEXODWLRQSDWKVGH¿QHGE\UHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVDQGDFRUUHsponding hierarchy of religious landscape markers.

At Alchi, in /DGDNK ZH ¿QG D IXUWKHU H[DPSOH RI D FRQFHQWULF FRQFHSW RI FLUFXPDPEXODWLRQ SDWKV)LJ7KHHQWUDQFHWRWKHYLOODJHLVPDUNHGE\D5LJVXP\*|QSR6LPLODUWRNyarma, RQH GLUHFWLRQ RIWKLV URXWH IROORZV DSSUR[LPDWHO\WKH ÀRZ GLUHFWLRQ RIWKHIndus, though it is still some distance away. The route is again marked by *chorten* and *chorten* groups, *mani* walls, Kakani Chorten, *lukhang*s (*klu khang*SUD\HUÀDJVSUD\HUZKHHOVDQGD*tsatsakhang*. This cir-FXPDPEXODWLRQURXWHHQFORVHVDTXDGULODWHUDOGLYLVLRQRIWKHAlchi village along the four cardinal directions.

8SWRWKHSUHVHQWZHFDQ¿QGWKHSUDFWLFHRITXDGULODWHUDOSRVLWLRQLQJRIIRXUSURWHFWLQJRigsum \*|QSRVHHSUHYLRXVH[SODQDWLRQRIWKH/KDVD0DঌDODDVWKHH[DPSOHRIAlchi shows. In this village, the four hamlets, namely Yülkhor (north), Gompa (south), &K|NKRUHDVWDQG6KDQJURQJ (west), are protected and integrated in a common sacred space (cf. Feiglstorfer 2021a and Forthcoming). The external border of the hamlets is marked by several 5LJVXP \*|QSR 2QH 5LJVXP\*|QSRLVORFDWHGDWWKHYLOODJHHQWUDQFHLQWKHQRUWKRQHDWWKHYHU\VRXWKHUQHQGRIWKH village, one close to the Druggyeling Gompa in the west and one in the east at the entrance gate to the historic monastery compound.

,QHDFKTXDUWHUZH¿QGUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVIRULQVWDQFHD*lhakhang* in the palace in Yülkhor, the historical monastic compound in &K|NKRUWKHTsatsapuri Gompa in Gompa and the Shangrong Gompa in Shangrong. Since the monastery compound, which contains some of the oldest struc-WXUHVLVSDUWRIWKLVTXDGULODWHUDOFRPSRVLWLRQWKHTXHVWLRQDULVHVLIWKHUHLVDJHRJUDSKLFDOFHQWUH of this composition. A hypothetical answer may be given by a simple drawing by Morup Dorje, a local teacher of Alchi (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011b: 14). In his drawing, which is based on a traditional local understanding, he depicts the .XPEXP&KRUWHQDVWKHYLOODJH¶VFHQWUHZKLFKZRXOG also correlate with the geographical centre, since this stone *chorten* is located in a central area of Yülkhor, &K|NKRUGompa and Shangrong.

6XFKSURJUDPPDWLFRYHUOD\VRIUHOLJLRXVREMHFWVRUEXLOGLQJVDQGODQGVFDSHERXQGWRSLOJULPV¶ULWual movement are part of the Tibetan Buddhist landscape and thus not solely bound to Himalayan but to Tibetan Buddhist customs. As an example of such a materialised programme outside the Himalayas, the Baldan Bereeven Monastery may be mentioned, apart from various other examples. It is a Gelugpa monastery in the east of 0RQJROLDƍƎ1ƍƎ(HVWDE-OLVKHGLQ6DQGHUV\$FRQFHQWULFDOO\RUJDQLVHGSLOJULP¶VURXWHOHDGVDURXQGWKH main temple and the surrounding temple compound. At the cardinal points this route is marked by votive Buddhist structures. Related to this cardinally divided circumambulation path is the fact that the monastery is embedded in a cardinal intersection among four sacred mountains, which are in the landscape associated with features of a Buddhist *PD۬ڲDOD*.

5HJDUGHGDVD VDFUHGODQGVFDSHFRPSRVLWLRQWKHPRQDVWHU\ GH¿QHVWKHFHQWUDO SLYRWZLWKLQD cardinally organised surrounding net of religious artefacts and mountains, and thus resembles essential features of the afore-described early Tibetan ritual spaces. The monastic structures are embedded in the centre of a *lingkor,*ZKLFKLVDJDLQTXDGULODWHUDOO\FRPSRVHGDQGWRJHWKHUZLWK the monastery in the centre forms a pentalic structure. Along the outer circumambulation path the four cardinal orientations are marked by religious structures.

As shown by means of the Mongolian examples, not only building structures like 5LJVXP\*|QSR *yülsa*, *chorten* or *lhatho*, but also natural phenomena such as mountains (a famous example being

)LJ\$OFKL&LUFXPDPEXODWLRQSDWKVPDUNHGE\ UHOLJLRXVREMHFWVDQGSODFHV7KH IRXUGLUHFWLRQVGH¿QHWKH IRXU SDUWVRIWKHYLOODJH0DSEDVHGRQ\*RRJOH(DUWK,PDJH0D[DU7HFKQRORJLHVDQG,PDJH&1(6\$LUEXV

the *korlam* around Mount Kailas), lakes (e.g. Nyarma *lingkor*) or certain trees are used as central SLYRWV7KLVV\VWHP±ZKLFKDORQJZLWKWKHDERYHJLYHQH[DPSOHVSULPDULO\LVUHODWHGWRRXWGRRU ODQGVFDSHPDUNHUV ±¿QGVLWVFRQWLQXDWLRQLQWKHLQWHULRU VSDFHZKLFKLV RIWHQ GH¿QHG E\WKH *nangkor* leading around a religious artefact. Buddhist activity is expressed by the body, speech DQGPLQGDOORIZKLFK¿QGH[SUHVVLRQLQSDUWLFXODUPDWHULDOLVDWLRQV\$VDQH[DPSOHD*küngarawa*36 (Tib. *NXQGJDUDED*) symbolises the trinity of all the three activities:37 Body is expressed by sculptures, speech by written texts, and the mind by *chorten*. These artefacts may all be ar-UDQJHGRQDERRNVKHOIRU¿QGWKHLUSDUWLFXODUSODFHZLWKLQD*lhakhang*.

### 3.1 Geometry and proportion

7KHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI FHUWDLQ DUFKLWHFWRQLF SDWWHUQV GHSHQGV RQ D FXOWXUDO D൶OLDWLRQ GH¿QLQJ certain geometrical and proportional rules. Geometrical and proportional patterns applied at early Tibetan sanctuaries are closely related to Indian predecessors, but not necessarily identical. The ZD\WKH\DUHDSSOLHGZLWKLQD7LEHWDQ%XGGKLVWFDQRQZDV¿QDOO\UHGH¿QHGDQGDSSOLHGZLWKORFDO variations, and as such maintained the individual character of each religious structure.

\$PDLQDVSHFWE\ZKLFKUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVGL൵HUIURPދVLPSOHތVHFXODUYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHVLV the precision of building construction (see Fig. 1.7). High precision is needed to follow a certain JHRPHWULFSDWWHUQEDVHGRQWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDFHQWUHDQGUHODWHGFRQFHQWULFFLUFOHVGLDJRQDOVDQG intersections (for instance, for erecting right angles). Early structures built with adobe bricks, such as at Tabo or Nyarma, show high precision.38 In Nyarma, the laying of bricks followed a particular method for the construction of sloping walls by introducing holes between bricks, which were ¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHVRUHDUWKDV¿OOLQJPDWHULDODQGZKRVHZLGWKZDVYDULHGIURPOD\HUWROD\HU

%HIRUHWKHSULPDU\XVHRIWKHVTXDUHDVDEDVLFJHRPHWULFDOGHVLJQWKHWUDSH]RLGDOVKDSHVHHPV to have been of particular relevance in the imperial Tibetan period. The trapezoid may already have been a commonly used shape in pre-Buddhist times, as shown at the layout of Tibetan burial mounds ranging in the centuries before or at least during the Central Tibetan imperial period (7th±th century CE) (cf. Feiglstorfer 2015). The outer enclosure of emperor 1DPUL6RQJWVHQ¶V 7LE\*QDPUL6URQJEWVDQGLHGHDUO\th century CE) mobile residence at \*\DPD7LE5J\DPD Hazod 2014: 24) is an early imperial example of a still prevalent trapezoidal design. The Gyama 7ULNKDQJ5J\DPDNKULNKDQJ±ZKLFKLVNQRZQWRKDYHVHUYHGDVDUHVLGHQFHRIWKHFRXUWLQWKH thFHQWXU\&(±ZDVHQFORVHGE\DIHQFHLQDWUDSH]RLGDOVKDSHVHH)LJFI+D]RG 30). The former shape of this kind of mobile residences is visible in the still existent trapezoidal

<sup>36</sup> *.XQGJDUDED* may be translated as "an enclosure that is totally joyful". This term has several meanings, all referring to some kind of enclosure that is well regarded. One meaning is the enclosure for housing representations of enlightened body / speech / mind usually as found in a religious institution (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011a: 113). This could be shelves for books, a housing for statues, etc. The name is also given to a library containing the sacred texts of WKH7ULSLWDNDLQDPRQDVWHU\HWF'X൵

<sup>37</sup> Communication with Christiane Kalantari at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (ÖAW), 21/01/2011.

<sup>38</sup> At Khorchag, several renovations changed the early structure in a way that this precision could no longer be ob-VHUYHGGXULQJRXU¿HOGUHVHDUFKLQ

Presented at the 12th TERRA Conference in Lyon in 2016.

shape of a later erected enclosure wall, which is still today marked with a *chorten* at each of its four corners. This layout formally shows the well-marked corner points located on the intermediate axes of the whole structure, and marks a type of a centralised layout with protective struc-WXUHVDWLWVIRXUFRUQHUVZKLFKZH¿QGDVSDUWRIDGHVLJQSDWWHUQRIVHYHUDOHDUO\PRQDVWLFVLWHV Previously, the trapezoidal shape had subordinate relevance within the layout of a geometrical canon used for Buddhist sanctuaries.

Measurements follow body measures such as *sormo* (Tib. *sor mo*, Skt. *D۪JXOD*³ZLGWKRID¿Qger"), *kru* (Tib. *khru*, Skt. *hasta*, "cubit"), *tho* (Tib. *mtho*, "span") or *dom* (Tib. ¶*dom*, "fathom"). The use of body measurements was in general wide-spread, and the system applied in Tibet correlates with the Indian system of measurement. Supposedly as in early West Tibetan monasteries such as Nyarma, for short dimensions, proportions from the upper body were used and possibly applied to a rope or a measuring stick.40 For longer distances, such as the length of enclosure ZDOOV VWHSSLQJPHDVXUHVZHUH XVHG7KH EDVLFPHDVXUHVPXVW KDYH EHHQLQGLYLGXDOO\ GH¿QHG for each structure or at least for each site, since no comprehensible proportional connection applicable to all early West Tibetan *tsuglagkhang*s has thus far been found (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011a: ±\$FFRUGDQFHEHWZHHQVHYHUDORIWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVSRLQWVWRZDUGVWKHXVHRIFRPPRQO\ valid units for measures of length (ibid. 618).

\$OVRVWDWHGLQGHWDLOHGH[DPLQDWLRQVFI.R]LF])HLJOVWRUIHUDELVDJHRPHWULcal and proportional relation between single parts of early West Tibetan temples, in particular

<sup>40</sup> In Tibet the use of a PHDVXULQJVWLFNZLWKDOHQJWKRIFPZDVUHSRUWHGXQWLOWKHVZLWKRXWJLYLQJGDWDIRU HDUOLHUKLVWRU\7KHOHQJWKRIFP¶*dom*) is divided by notches on the stick in the following manner: 12 *sor mo =* 1 *mtho;* 2 *mtho =* 1 *khru;* 4 *khru =* 1 *rang* ¶*dom* RU¶*dom*=KRQJ\LHWDO6FKXK

between *dukhang* (assembly hall) and *tsangkhang* (*cella*). For early West Tibetan temples, four proportional strategies in relating these two building parts can be categorised (cf. Feiglstorfer E±XVLQJWKHSHULPHWHUDURXQGFRUQHUVLQPRVWFDVHVRUWKHLQFLUFOHFRQQHFWHGZLWK the centre of the assembly hall as a common pivot.

A study of the geometry of Central Tibetan temples41 states the use of similar proportional schemata already in the imperial Tibetan period. An observation of the Lhasa Jokhang shows that most SUREDEO\WKHFHQWUHRIWKHDVVHPEO\KDOOZDV¿[HG¿UVW1H[WZLWKFRQFHQWULFDOFLUFOHVDQGGLDJR-QDOVRIVTXDUHVWKHFRUQHUSRLQWVRIWKHDVVHPEO\KDOODQGWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKH*cella*ZHUHGH¿QHG This result would indicate the assembly hall as the origin of all further planning in a geometrical context, and the *cella* as proportionally dependent.

The Jokhang in /KDVDRQHRIWKH¿UVW%XGGKLVWWHPSOHVLQ7LEHW is of particular interest for the examination of internal proportions (Fig. 1.10).42 Since we know from West Tibetan temples that the use of the perimeter was important, the possibility of its use was also examined at this object. Regarding the ground plan of the -RNKDQJZHKDYHWRWKLQNLQYDULRXVEXLOGLQJSKDVHV7KH¿UVW (mid-7th century) contained just 64 pillars, and at that time the Jowo Lhakhang (= *cella*±ZKLFK was transformed during a building phase in the 11th century CE when the *cella* was enlarged WRZDUGVWKHRXWVLGHDWWKHHDVWVLGHRIWKHEXLOGLQJ\$OH[DQGHU±VKRZHGQRRXWZDUG protruding extension. According to the ground plan this extension was a doubling of the room depth (see Fig. 1.10 [1]). During another building phase in the 14th century, the courtyard was covered by a roof, and additional pillars were introduced.

Since the basic structure of the ground plan was not seriously changed but rather adapted, this PHDQVWKDWWKH HVVHQWLDO SURSRUWLRQVZHUH DOUHDG\ GH¿QHG GXULQJWKH ¿UVW EXLOGLQJ SKDVH7KH FRXUW\DUG VKRZV D UHODWLYHO\ SUHFLVH VTXDUH JHRPHWU\\$OO IXUWKHU GHPDUFDWLRQV RIWKH JURXQG plan, i.e. the location of the walls of the chambers (towards the courtyard and also towards the RXWVLGHDSSUR[LPDWHO\IROORZDVTXDUHVKDSHEXWQRWZLWKWKHVDPHSUHFLVLRQDVWKHFRXUW\DUG VTXDUH7KXVWKHGUDZLQJRIDFLUFXPVFULELQJFLUFOHDURXQGWKHFRXUW\DUGVTXDUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\ GH¿QHVWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHRXWHUZDOOVRIWKHODWHUDOFHOOVVHH)LJ>@,QVFULELQJDFLUFOHLQ WKHFRXUW\DUGVTXDUH>@DQGLQVFULELQJDIXUWKHUVTXDUHLQWRWKLVFLUFOH>@GH¿QHVWKHSRVLWLRQRI three sides of the pillar rows (north, west and south).

When drawing a circumscribing circle around the inner corners of the early shape of the Jowo /KDNKDQJVHH)LJ>D@±ZLWKLWVFHQWUHORFDWHGRQLWVUHDUZDOO±ZHREWDLQDSDUWLFXODU diameter. When drawing three tangent circles having this diameter along the diagonal of the FRXUW\DUG >E@ ZH FDQ FRQVWUXFW WKH VTXDUH RI WKH FRXUW\DUG 7KH UHVXOWLQJ JHRPHWU\ RI WKLV

<sup>41</sup> This study on early imperial religious structures in Central Tibet was conducted within the FWF-project P25066 "The Burial Mounds of Central Tibet" in spring 2014 at the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. The results are not yet published.

<sup>42</sup> The plan used for this study was drawn according to Alexander (2005: 40) aligned with a plan published in XWD (2010: 125). Since the correctness of the reference plans can not be proven, certain deviations may not be exclud-HG7KHPHWKRGRIREVHUYDWLRQKRZHYHULVK\SRWKHWLFDODQGPD\RQO\EHSURYHQE\DTXDQWLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKDQG the comparison of various results. Nevertheless, also in this case the use of circumscribing circles seems to have been of relevance.

46 Chapter I

Fig. 1.11 Nyarma. Tsuglagkhang. Vertical layering of the building site. 1 = *Cella*. 2 = Assembly hall. 3 = Courtyard and outer circumambulation path.

method would be a SHQWDOLFVWUXFWXUHRI¿YHFLUFOHVLQVFULEHGLQWKHVTXDUHRIWKHFRXUW\DUG7KH HDVWHUQPRVWSRLQWRIWKHFRXUW\DUGFLUFOHZRXOGGH¿QHWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHHQWUDQFHRIWKHJowo Lhakhang [6]. The hypothetical character of this study has already been pointed out and only further examinations on this matter will create a clearer picture. These results indicate the use of a concentric geometry based on circles and diagonals, with their intersection point being the centre RIWKHFRXUW\DUGVTXDUH7KHJowo Lhakhang and the courtyard (which is the *dukhang* in a later phase) would be proportionally related to each other. Considering the whole structure of the Lhasa Jokhang as a PDQGDOLFFRPSRVLWLRQLWVSLYRWLVGH¿QHGE\WKHFHQWUHRIWKHFRXUW\DUGDQGWKH *cella*LVVKLIWHGVLGHZD\V±SUREDEO\IRUIXQFWLRQDOUHDVRQVVXFKDVJXDUDQWHHLQJHQRXJKVSDFHIRU assemblies in the courtyard. Today, for the pilgrim a connection between assembly hall and *cella* may again be experienced by circumambulating the assembly hall and on the east side passing the Jowo Lhakhang, where the Jowo itself can be circumambulated.

The term "mandalic" in general refers to a geometric shape containing a centre and an outer periphery, which can be related to a *PD۬ڲDOD*as an ideological programme. For a painted *PD۬ڲDOD*, Luczanits mentions a direct relation between the drawn *PD۬ڲDOD* and the geometry "used"WKH drawn *PD۬ڲDOD*UHIHUVWRWKHGHLWLHVZKLFKDUHWREHYLVXDOLVHGZKLOHWKHJHRPHWU\XVHGGH¿QHV WKH SXUL¿HG ULWXDO VSKHUH /X]FDQLWV  ,Q DQ DVVLJQHGWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO DUFKLWHFWXUDO meaning, objects of visualisation and the geometry of the ritual space might correlate with this description and by that involve those believers, who access this sacred space in the *PD۬ڲDOD*-space.

Moving towards historical Western Tibet (see Map 1.2), the *tsuglagkhang* in Nyarma is the biggest and probably the oldest structure at this temple site. The centre of the construction is the *tsangkhang* (*cella*), which is surrounded by a roof-covered ambulatory. Due to missing archaeo-ORJLFDOGDWDLWUHPDLQVXQFOHDUZKLFKRIWKHWZRSDUWV±*tsangkhang* and surrounding ambulatory or *dukhang*±ZHUHHUHFWHG¿UVW\$FFRUGLQJWRWKHSURSRUWLRQDOFRKHUHQFHVDQGWKHWRSRJUDSKLcally highest location of the *tsangkhang*LWPLJKW KDYH EHHQWKH ¿UVW HUHFWHG VWUXFWXUH ZLWKLQ the *tsuglagkhang* (main temple) to attach further building parts (Fig. 1.11). We can talk at least RIWKUHH SDUWV RIWKHPRVW HDUO\OD\RXW WKH VTXDUH*tsangkhang* (= *cella*) surrounded by the FUXFLIRUPVKDSHGERXQGDU\RIWKHLQQHUFLUFXPDPEXODWLRQSDWKWKHVTXDUH*dukhang* and 3) the stepped-shaped boundary of the outer circumambulation path and a forecourt with two attached *lhakhang*s. This early structure was in later building phases extended, e.g. with a second storey on top of the *tsangkhang* (Feiglstorfer 2021b: 251).

Regarding the result of the proportional analysis of the Jokhang in Lhasa, its proportional arrangement hypothetically describes the centre of the courtyard as the starting point for measurements DQGSURSRUWLRQDOGH¿QLWLRQ,Q1\DUPDWKLVVWDUWLQJSRLQWZLWKLQWKHSODQQLQJSURFHVVPLJKWDOVR have been the *dukhang,* on which the layout of the basis of the single attached structures was ¿[HG7KHKLHUDUFK\RIWKHDPEXODWLRQSDWKVDVSDUWRIWKHKRUL]RQWDORUGHURIWKH*tsangkhang* correlates with its vertical shaping, which increases from the forecourt towards the central core. Following these facts in combination with a possible start of the planning process in the courtyard of the Lhasa -RNKDQJWKHTXHVWLRQLVUDLVHGZKHWKHUWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWRIGHVLJQDQGWKHVWDUWLQJ SRLQWRIFRQVWUXFWLQJPD\KDYHEHHQGL൵HUHQW+\SRWKHWLFDOO\WKHGHVLJQPD\KDYHVWDUWHGLQWKH *dukhang* but the building process of making the walls itself may have started with the *tsangkhang*. 5HJDUGLQJWKHSURFHVVRI¿[LQJWKHOD\RXWDQRWKHUPDWWHUUHPDLQVIRUIXWXUHDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHsearch: The above-mentioned three building parts (1 to 3) of the earliest structure are arranged on GL൵HUHQWOHYHOVVHHQXPEHUVLQ)LJ(LWKHUWKHOD\RXWZDV¿[HGRQDFRPPRQOHYHOIURP where the single platforms were raised according to the plan, or the single platforms were raised DQGVHUYHGDVSODWIRUPVRQZKLFKWR¿[WKH¿QDOOD\RXW

At 6DP\HWKHPDLQWHPSOHLVRUJDQLVHGDERYHDFHQWUDOVTXDUHRID3 x 3 grid, which is bordered by the monastery enclosure wall (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011b: 216). For the manifestation of a certain geometrical and proportional concept, axis, diagonals and circles were used, and particular intersections mark the location of certain parts of the compound. A feature found in earliest West Tibetan temples is the use of a modular system. In the *tsangkhang* of the *tsuglagkhang* in Nyarma, a *modulus*VHHPVWRKDYHEHHQGH¿QHGDVDNLQGRIPHDVXULQJXQLWE\GLYLGLQJWKHDUHDRIWKH*tsangkhang*LQWRQLQHVTXDUHVRIHTXDOVL]HE\GUDZLQJD3 x 3 grid (Tib. *re'u mig dgu pa*) (ibid. 224). In this *tsangkhang* the geometrical order of the 3 x 3 grid determines the location of the niche on the western wall. The star-shaped pattern is formed by a 3 x 3 grid expressed by one centre and four ÀDQNVDWWDFKHGLQWKHIRXUGLUHFWLRQV7KLVVWDUVKDSHGIRUPDWLRQ¿QGVLWVGHVLJQDWLRQLQWKHORFDtion of the niches of the *tsangkhang* of the Nyarma main temple. Similarly, we can interpret the star-shaped central core of the *tsuglagkhang* in Tholing (see Fig. 1.3) with Vairocana at its centre. The mandalic shape of the central temple is formed by the central *lhakhang* (*tsangkhang*) with four attached *lhakhang*s, i.e. the surrounding *lingshi* (Tib. *gling bzhi*) as the four divisions (Vitali 7KHFRUHVWUXFWXUHDOVRK\SRWKHWLFDOO\IROORZVD3 x 3 grid of a pentalic order, which GH¿QHVWKH*modulus* for generating the layout of the whole temple (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011b: 111).

Following the formal pattern of an Indian *YLKƗUD* (for example, in the 6th century in Nalanda), several early &HQWUDO7LEHWDQWHPSOHVWUXFWXUHVDUHEDVHGRQDV\PPHWULFPRVWO\VTXDUHJHRPHWric plan. The layout of Indian *YLKƗUD*VLVEDVHGRQDQRSHQVTXDUHFRXUWVXUURXQGHGE\WKHFHOOV for the monks and a votive cell opposite the doorway. At the Jokhang in Lhasa or at the Tandruk 9LKƗUDVHH)LJZH¿QGCentral Tibetan successors of this functional pattern. The original structures are reduced to the arrangement of votive cells facing towards a central open courtyard.

At early West Tibetan monastic sites like Nyarma, the pattern of the Indian *YLKƗUD* is designed by transforming the central court into a roofed central assembly hall, and the votive cells are reduced to a *tsangkhang*DVRQHDGMRLQHGVPDOOHUFHOO5HJDUGLQJWKHOD\RXWWKHVTXDUHVKDSHRIWKH *dukhang* of 1\DUPDLVVWLOOFORVHWRWKHVTXDUHDWOHDVWUHFWDQJXODUVKDSHGFRXUW\DUGRIWKHIndian *YLKƗUD*s. The *dukhang* located in front of the inner core of the *tsuglagkhang* in Tholing shows an uncommon early West Tibetan pattern in that it is integrated into the geometric super-structure. This pattern is closer to the spatial relation between the *dukhang* and the *utse* (Tib. *dbu rtse*) of Samye than between the *dukhang* and the *tsangkhang* at Nyarma, which shows a much more separated structure. The two *tsuglagkhang*s of Samye and Tholing probably show the closest spatial IRUPDOGH¿QLWLRQRIDEXLOWFHQWUDOLVHGmandalic-shaped super-structure with both representing early monastic examples of Central and West Tibet, respectively (see Fig. 1.3).

In the early Central and :HVW7LEHWDQSKDVH±HJDWWKHLhasa Jokhang, at Nyarma or at 7DER± the *tsangkhang* is expressed as an architectural body with its own ambulatory. Nyarma, with its FORVHGDPEXODWRU\DURXQGWKHFHQWUDOFRUHKDVLWVRZQIHDWXUHLQWKHDUFKLWHFWXUDOGH¿QLWLRQRID *nangkor*. There are only a few early :HVW7LEHWDQWHPSOHVHTXLSSHGZLWKWKLVNLQGRIDQLQWHUQDO ambulatory: the *tsuglagkhang*s of Nyarma, of Tabo and of Tholing. All three are known as *chökhor*DQGZHUHEXLOWDWDVLPLODUWLPHDURXQG&(7KHNyarma one-*cella*-type can be typologically better related to the early Central Tibetan one-*cella*-structure of Ramoche or Uru Katsel than to the Central Tibetan triple-*cella*-structure of the 7DQGUXN9LKƗUDRUWKHLhasa Jokhang. In later GHYHORSPHQWVRIWKHKLVWRULFDO:HVWHUQ7LEHWDQUHJLRQZHFDQQRORQJHU¿QGWKHNyarma-type with the central core as an internally ambulated *cella* attached to the *dukhang* as a common design. The further development of this early West Tibetan ambulatory structure as an architectural body on its own appears in the reduction of the ambulated *cella* into a *cella* niche, shown at one of the earliest examples of this development, namely the *dukhang* of \$OFKL\$VLJQL¿FDQWIHDWXUH of several of the early Central and West Tibetan main temples is the existence of a *nangkor* around the *tsangkhang*.

### 3.2 Orientation as a tool within canonical architecture

\$IXUWKHUZD\WRGLVWLQJXLVKDQDUFKLWHFWXUDOOD\RXWZLWKDXQLYHUVDOGHPDQGLVWRGH¿QHWKHRULentation of particular elite structures by following geomantic systematics. In a religious setting WKHRULHQWDWLRQRIDVWUXFWXUHLVGH¿QHGE\WKHGLUHFWLRQLQZKLFKWKHFHQWUDOVWDWXHLQDWHPSOH IDFHV7KLVRULHQWDWLRQHTXDOVLQPRVWFDVHVWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHHQWUDQFHRSHQLQJRULQWKHFDVH of a *stupa,* the orientation in which the hole of the vase is facing. In general in the Asian region, Buddhist temples follow cardinal directions. Early Central and West Tibetan temple structures GL൵HUIURPVXFKDNLQGRIDEVROXWHVWDQGDUGLVLQJRIWKHLURULHQWDWLRQDQGWKHIHDWXUHRIDQDEVROXWH RULHQWDWLRQLVQRWWKHUXOH\$VZLOOEHVHHQLQWKHIROORZLQJGL൵HUHQWRULHQWDWLRQVKDYHEHHQXVHG UDLVLQJWKHTXHVWLRQRIFRPPRQYDOLGUXOHVLQWKHLUGHWHUPLQDWLRQ

At most early Tibetan monastic sites, not only one but several religious structures can be located. :LWKLQWKHVHHQVHPEOHVWKHTXHVWLRQLVUDLVHGLIWKHUHLVDFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHRULHQWDWLRQRI

WKHPDLQWHPSOHDQGVHFRQGDU\WHPSOHVZKLFKLQPRVWFDVHV±OLNHDW7KROLQJ, Tabo or \$OFKL± have been erected chronologically after the main temple). Since an absolute cardinal orientation was followed at only a few sites, for the others a relative concept must have been relevant.

5HODWLYHFRQFHSWVRIRULHQWDWLRQGHSHQGRQWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDUHIHUHQFHSRLQW,QHDUO\7LEHWDQ %XGGKLVWVWUXFWXUHVZH¿QGRULHQWDWLRQVWRZDUGVWKHZHVWRUHDVWDVDEVROXWHGLUHFWLRQV7KLVLV the case at the Jokhang or the Ramoche Temple in Lhasa, respectively. In other cases, as relative SRLQWVRIUHIHUHQFHZH¿QGDQRULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVDVSHFL¿FQDWXUDOSKHQRPHQRQWRZDUGVVSH-FL¿FDUWHIDFWVRUWRZDUGVDSDUWLFXODUSROLWLFDOFHQWUH<sup>43</sup>

In the Tibetan region, dealing with orientations is not a Buddhist invention. It can be observed earlier in pre-Buddhist times, for instance, in the position of burial mound positions. The beginning of Tibetan burial mounds is related to the development of Tibetan chiefdoms app. in the 4th century CE. The burial mounds follow the topography of the place, on which they are erected, commonly in parallel to the mountain slope and facing towards the valley (cf. Feiglstorfer 2015). \$VVKRZQLQDSUHVHQWDWLRQE\:LOOLDP5RPDLQ7LEHWDQWRPEVLQPDQ\FDVHVGL൵HUIURPDEVROXWH RULHQWDWLRQVDQGVKRZUHODWLRQVWRSDUWLFXODUVSRWVLQWKHODQGVFDSH5RPDLQ,QFRQWUDVW Chinese or Mongolian burial mounds from the Tang period do not follow the topography in this continuously changing manner but show much more absolute cardinal orientations. Examples include the 7th century CE Mongolian tomb, which was excavated at Shoroon Bumbagar burial site at 8ODDQ.KHUHP(UGHQHEROGDQG/L;LDQ¶VWRPEDVDCentral Chinese example).

Observations within the FWF project "Burial mounds of Central Tibet" stated the construction RIWRPEVLQGL൵HUHQWVKHOOVFI)HLJOVWRUIHU7KHRULHQWDWLRQH[SODLQHGEHIRUHRIWKH mound following the topography concerns the outer shell of the visible mound. The next inner VKHOOVDUHWKHEXULDOFKDPEHUDQGWKHFR൶Q\$WDPRXQGDWVLWHLo-3c, Tagtse (Tib. Stag rtse) County)44LWZDVSRVVLEOHIRUWKHDXWKRUWRSURYHWKDWWKHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHFKDPEHUGL൵HUVIURP the orientation of the outer shell of the mound. Due to several foregoing studies on the orientation of Tibetan temple structures (as described later in this text), a cosmic relation becomes possible DQGWKHTXHVWLRQLVUDLVHGLIWKHUHLVDOVRVXFKDUHODWLRQIRUWKHLQQHUFRUHRIEXULDOPRXQGV+D]RG (Interview 2016) describes particular parameters based on literature, which point towards a determination of orientations by particular celestial bodies.

For the imperial Central Tibetan period (in the Central Himalayas) and the following West Tibetan period (in the Western Himalayas), certain patterns of orientation become obvious. The latest state of research shows an individual strategy for the determination of orientations for each structure. Only in a few cases a hypothesis of a correlation of orientations between a group of temples can be given. The orientations of several early imperial Central Tibetan and early West Tibetan tem-SOHVDQGPRQDVWLFVLWHVZLOOEHGLVFXVVHGDQGMX[WDSRVHGZLWKWKHFHQWUDOWDVNRI¿QGLQJPHWKRGV IRUGH¿QLQJSDUWLFXODUUHIHUHQFHSRLQWV:KDWFDQEHVWDWHGDWWKHPRPHQWLVDUDQJHRIYDULRXV PHWKRGVLQGH¿QLQJRULHQWDWLRQVFI)HLJOVWRUIHUDDQGLWLVSRVVLEOHWRJLYHWKHIROORZLQJ state of research.

<sup>43</sup> Presented at the winter retreat at the ISA / ÖAW in 2014.

<sup>44</sup> The site numbers follow a categorisation according to the TTT (Tibetan Tumulus Tradition) ZHEVLWHKWWSZZZRHDZDFDWWLEHWDQWXPXOXVWUDGLWLRQGHVWDUWVHLWHDFFHVV


<sup>45</sup> 8QSXEOLVKHGSURMHFWUHSRUWE\\$QGUp\$OH[DQGHUIRUWKH\*HUGD+HQNHO6WLIWXQJWLWOHG*Die Kulturbauten aus der Gründerzeit des tibetischen Reichs (siebtes Jahrhundert n. Chr.): Eine kulturgeographische, architektonische und ethnographische Dokumentation*. He also presented a paper on this matter at the IATS conference in Vancouver in 2010.


7KHVHH[DPSOHVVKRZSRVVLEOHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQSDUWLFXODUVLWHVGHWHUPLQHGE\GH¿QLWLRQRIWKHLU orientations. On the other hand, we should not overlook the hypothetical character of these statements and cannot exclude a possible coincidence. Furthermore, even in the case that these statements are exactly correct, they primarily state the strong tendency in the imperial Central Tibetan and early :HVW7LEHWDQSHULRGWRGH¿QHFRQQHFWLQJRULHQWDWLRQVLQGLYLGXDOO\IRUVRPHSDUWLFXODU sites. At this state of research, all these facts do not show a particular homogenous interrelation to explain an overall connected political or religious system.

Referring back to the introduction of this chapter, a possible cosmic relation of orientating structures towards celestial constellations cannot be excluded, and with some ongoing observations DUDWKHUXQWRXFKHG¿HOGRIUHVHDUFKLQ7LEHWDQFXOWXUHKDVEHHQRSHQHG\$UHFHQW¿QGLQJLQ started with an examination of the orientation of the Khorchag Monastery. Here for one of the original early :HVW7LEHWDQWHPSOHVLWZDVSRVVLEOHWRLGHQWLI\ IRUWKH¿UVWWLPHDQRULHQWDWLRQ towards several celestial phenomena (cf. Feiglstorfer 2017a). The temples of Khorchag, which DUHERWKZLWKLQRQHPRQDVWHU\FRPSRXQGDWOHDVWRQHZDVIRXQGHGLQ&(WKHLhakhang Chenmo and the -RNKDQJDUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\LQDQ RUWKRJRQDO SRVLWLRQWRHDFK RWKHUWKH¿UVW with an orthogonal position to the passing Peacock River, the second with a parallel position to the river (see Fig. 1.5). With an orientation of 78° north-east for the Lhakhang Chenmo, and an

Fig. 1.12 Khorchag. Monastery. View from the Maitreya statue of the Lhakhang Chenmo along the central axis of the WHPSOH7KHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIWKHPDLQD[LVRIWKHWHPSOHZLWKWKHPRXQWDLQVKDSHLVVKRZQE\DQDUURZ,QDULVH RIWKHPRRQDQGWKH9HQXVRFFXUUHGRQWKHthRI-XQHDWDP-XOLDQFDOHQGDUVKRUWO\DIWHUWKHULVHRIWKHVXQ Software used: Stellarium (version 0.13.0, 2014). Landscape source: Google Earth (access: 12/06/2014), DigitalGlobe 2014, satellite recording in 2005. For better visibility of celestial bodies, the background of the sky was darkened (cf. Feiglstorfer 2017a).

orientation of 353° north-west for the Jokhang, an absolute orientation can be excluded. A reconstruction of celestial constellations of the /KDNKDQJ&KHQPR±ZKLFKPLJKWEHWKHHDUOLHURIWKHVH WZRWHPSOHVFI)HLJOVWRUIHUD±ZDVFRQGXFWHGIRUWKH\HDU&(ZKHQWKHWHPSOHZDV UHSRUWHGO\IRXQGHG7KHWHPSOH¶VRULHQWDWLRQZDVEURXJKWLQUHODWLRQWRLWVLQWHUVHFWLRQXVLQJD SUR¿OHRIWKHKRUL]RQZKHUHLQWKHWUDFNRISDUWLFXODUFHOHVWLDOERGLHVDOVRFURVVHG

7KHUHVXOWRIWKLVVWXG\VKRZVDQLQWHUHVWLQJFRQVWHOODWLRQRIFHOHVWLDOERGLHVRQWKHth of July, ZKLFKLVMXVWWKUHHGD\VDIWHUWKHVXPPHUVROVWLFH(Fig. 1.12). On the same day it was pos-VLEOHWRREVHUYHWKHQHZPRRQULVLQJMXVW¿YHPLQXWHVDIWHUVXQULVHDQGWZRPLQXWHVDIWHUWKHULVH of Venus. On the same day Mercury and Mars also rose close to this point of intersection. All this happened between 8:11 and 11:41 in the morning of the same day. The amount of celestial activities in that short time span points towards the existence of a particular knowledge on the calculation of celestial activities in advance. Thus, the hypothesis can be given that the orientation towards celestial bodies played a role in the orientation of the temples of Khorchag. Celestial relations for other early West Tibetan temples cannot be excluded and will be a target of further research.

### 3උൾඌඍංංඈඎඌൻඎංඅൽංඇආൺඍൾඋංൺඅඍඈඋൾඉඋൾඌൾඇඍൺඌඈർංൺඅඌඍൺඍඎඌ

"Canonic"LQWKHSUHVHQWDUFKLWHFWXUDOFRQWH[WHTXDOVDNLQGRIVWDQGDUGLVDWLRQDQGLWLPSOLFDWHV reproducibility on a modular basis. Particular canonical layouts are reserved to an elite group and a particular representative purpose. Canonical structures implicate particular behavioural pat-WHUQV7KH\DUHDEOHWRUHSUHVHQWDFHUWDLQGRPLQDQFHRYHUދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHV\$UHSUH-VHQWDWLYHVWDWXVLQDUHOLJLRXVFRQWH[WFDQEHH[SUHVVHGE\WKHDIRUHGLVFXVVHGPHWKRGVLQGH¿QLQJ DVDFUHGVSDFH+RZHYHUWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOXVHGKDVVRIDUQRWEHHQFRQVLG-HUHG7KLVFKDSWHUSRLQWVWRZDUGVWZRFDWHJRULHVRIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOV7KH¿UVWFDWHJRU\LQFOXGHV ORFDOO\ DYDLODEOHPDWHULDO QHHGHGWR IXO¿O FHUWDLQ EDVLF HVVHQWLDOV RI FRQVWUXFWLRQ FRPPRQ IRU vernacular architecture. The second category expresses a certain elite status. In this case building material can be longer lasting, more precious or originate from further away.

In the Himalayas, some of the earliest remains of still used architecture are religious structures. 'XHWRPDLQWHQDQFHH൵RUWVEHLQJPRUHIRFXVHGRQVXFKUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVDVFRPSDUHGWRWKH preservation of residential or farming constructions, such structures show higher longevity. It may be the interest of a particular community, e.g. village members or monks, to take care of proper maintenance.

%XWDOVRWKHXVHRIGL൵HUHQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGPDWHULDOVDQGSRVVLEO\KLJKHUH൵RUWVLQSURFHVVLQJ are basic for gaining a representative character. In general, Tibetan houses are technically simple constructions of high ecological value regarding short distances of transport and long durability. \$SDUWIURPFRQVWUXFWLYHGL൵HUHQFHVVXFKDVWKLFNHUDQGKLJKHUZDOOVIRUUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVWUXFWXUHV WKDQIRUYHUQDFXODUUHVLGHQWLDOVWUXFWXUHVZKDWDUHWKHGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHPDWHULDOXVHG"

\$WOHDVWIRUWKHEDVLFVWUXFWXUHRIUHOLJLRXVEXLOGLQJVVLPLODUPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHVDUHXVHGFRPSDUHG WRދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHV)RUWKHODWWHUHDUWKDQGVWRQHVDUHFROOHFWHGLQWKHFORVHYLFLQLW\ :LWKWKHZRRGWKDWKDVEHHQXVHGZH¿QGVRPHGL൵HUHQFHV)RUދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHV wood is also sourced from areas nearby, while wood for structures of a social representative status may originate from areas further away (also see Chapter IV), similar to other natural resources. \$ PDLQ GL൵HUHQFH WR WKH EXLOGLQJ PDWHULDO XVHG IRU ދVLPSOHތ YHUQDFXODU VWUXFWXUHV OLHV LQ WKH material used for representative surfaces of roofs, ÀRRUVFHLOLQJVDQGZDOOV+HUHWKHPDWHULDOV XVHGUHSUHVHQWDKLJKHUVWDWXVVLQFHWKH\PD\EHUDUHWUDQVSRUWHGRYHUDORQJGLVWDQFHRUUHTXLUH H[SHQVLYHDQGKLJKH൵RUWIRUSURFHVVLQJ:KDWZHFDQK\SRWKHWLFDOO\VWDWHDWWKLVSRLQWLVWKDWWKH use of non-local materials points towards the aim to represent a particular higher social status. In the following, examples for commonly used surface materials are given.

### 4.1 Roofs and floors

The basic construction of roofs and ÀRRUVLVUDWKHUVLPLODUEHWZHHQދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUDQGVWUXFtures of a social representative status. The wood for beams and pillars is cut in the near vicinity or transported over longer distances, as might be the case when using cedar or *shukpa* (see Chapter ,9)RUދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUDFRPPRQO\XVHGZRRGLVSRSODU&RPSDUHGWRcedar, which is often used for structures of a higher social status and which grows higher, poplar wood is commonly XVHGIRUཙVLPSOHཚYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHVDQGLWLVVRIWHUDQGQRWDQWLIXQJDO

Ceilings at buildings representing a higher social status are in general much more carefully processed (cf. Feiglstorfer 2012a). The earliest known ceilings of religious structures in historical Western Tibetan were made with wooden planks hewn with an adze. Moreover, at several religious structures, ceilings were painted or covered with painted textiles, as is the case in the Tabo Tsuglagkhang (Fig. 1.13). Another representative method is the laying of straight and decorticated WZLJVQH[WWRHDFKRWKHUHLWKHULQDQRUWKRJRQDORU¿VKERQHSDWWHUQ

7KHUHDUHGL൵HUHQWTXDOLWLHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKSURFHVVLQJRIWKHXSSHUOD\HUVRIWKHroof. In the case of an earth roof, a simple method of construction involves using only one layer of earth, while IRUORQJHUODVWLQJVWUXFWXUHVWZRRUPRUHOD\HUVRIFOD\RISDUWLFXODUTXDOLWLHVDUHXVHG8VHRIWKH

Fig. 1.13 Tabo. Tsuglagkhang. Painted textiles on wooden planks hewn with an adze.

Fig. 1.14 Lhasa. Jokhang. Shiny surface of an oiled and burnished *arga* ÀRRU

*arga*VWRQHFI)HLJOVWRUIHULVDPHWKRGZLWKDKLJKUHSUHVHQWDWLYHFKDUDFWHUDQGSULPDULO\ used for prestigious (religious and aristocratic) structures (Fig. 1.14) (see Martin 2013). An early reported use of *arga*JRHVEDFNWRWKHLPSHULDOSHULRGZKHUHLWZDVDSSOLHGDVÀRRULQJPDWHULDO LQDEXULDOFKDPEHU6RQDP:DQJGX+RX6KL]KX7KLVNLQGRIXVHDOVRUHIHUVWRWKH representation of high social status. Its processing needs dozens of workers, and in some cases WKHPDWHULDOKDVWREHWUDQVSRUWHGRYHUORQJGLVWDQFHVVHH&KDSWHU,,)HLJOVWRUIHU൵ 'L൵HUHQWFRORXUVRIPLQHUDOVDOORZIRUWKHSURFHVVLQJRIDFRORXUIXOGHVLJQDQGWKHXVHRIFHUWDLQ minerals and vegetable additions also turns the ÀRRULQWRDUHGGLVKFRORXUVXLWDEOHIRUUHOLJLRXV structures.

### 4.2 Wall surfaces

In the Himalayan regions, particularly for religious structures, mural paintings developed as a WUDGLWLRQDOFUDIW&RYHULQJZDOOVZLWKPLQHUDODQGYHJHWDEOHFRORXUSLJPHQWVVSHFL¿FDOO\RYHU DZKLWHVXEOD\HUUHTXLUHVDVPRRWKVXUIDFHRIWKHwall plaster below. The plaster has to be of a cohesive and non-cracking nature, and its capillary suction should be low. Therefore a particular material for the plaster has to be chosen, and surfaces should be burnished before being painted (Fig. 1.15). This procedure is labour-intensive and makes the surface harder, more durable, more LPSDFWUHVLVWDQWVOLJKWO\K\GURSKRELFDQGOHYHOOHGIRUPXUDOSDLQWLQJV6XFKDTXDOLW\FDQQRWEH achieved by just preparing a simple plaster or in the simplest manner by just whitewashing the subconstruction.

7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIDKLJKTXDOLW\plaster was not only known for mural-paintings but also for ap-SOLFDWLRQRQZRRGHQSLOODUVZLWKD¿QLVKLQJPRQRFKURPHUHGFRORXUDVLVVWLOOSUHVHQWLQUDWKHU good condition in the Maitreya Lhakhang in Basgo (see Chapter III) (Fig. 1.16). For this applica-WLRQNQRZKRZLQSURFHVVLQJDVSHFL¿Fgrass as an undercoat layer was also needed. Such grass processing has similarities to practices used for clay sculptures (see Chapter II).

Fig. 1.15 Uru Katsel. Assembly hall. Shiny surface of a burnished clay plaster.

Fig. 1.16 Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang. Painted clay plaster on round-shaped wooden pillars.

Besides the preparation of a proper subconstruction, only specialists can create a mural painting. The raw material, inter alia mineral and vegetable colours have to be processed in a rather labourintensive manner so as to reach the desired pigments. Some of the raw material is partially still available in Tibetan regions, and some had to be brought from Central China or even from Nepal, Bhutan or India.

Clay sculptures, which are immovable and attached to the wall or ground, can be seen as part of WKHDUFKLWHFWXUH7KHLUSURFHVVLQJLVDFUDIWRILWVRZQDQGLQJHQHUDOGLVFRQQHFWHGIURPދVLPSOHތ vernacular architecture (except for small and transportable clay sculptures) and primarily related WRUHOLJLRXVDUFKLWHFWXUH)RUWKHVWXG\RIHDUWKEXLOGLQJVNQRZOHGJHUHODWHGWRWKHTXDOLW\RIWKH raw material used for other crafts, such as making clay sculptures, Tibetan stoves or for pottery seems to be basic for a comprehensive understanding and will be examined in Chapter II and Chapter III.

### 'ංඌർඎඌඌංඈඇ

,QWKLV¿UVWFKDSWHULWZDVSRVVLEOHWRFRQQHFWHDUOLHUUHVHDUFKPDWHULDOZLWKUHFHQWUHVHDUFKUHVXOWV DQGWR¿QGDVXSHULRUFRUUHODWLRQ7KHLQWHJUDWLRQRIWKHreligio-political programme into earlier architectural research brings the single architectural tools in relation to each other and explains their use in a modular and canonical context. This extended approach gives fresh insight into the interrelation of architecture as a tool of programmatic representation.

\*HRPHWU\DQGSURSRUWLRQDUHPHQWLRQHGDVPDMRUWRROVWRGH¿QHHDUO\%XGGKLVWDUFKLWHFWXUHLQWKH +LPDOD\DV7KH\DUHXVHGIRUWKHPDWHULDOLVDWLRQRIDVSHFL¿FUHOLJLRXVSURJUDPPHZKLFKLVGH- ¿QHGE\KRZLWLVH[SHULHQFHGE\WKHEHOLHYHU,QFRQWUDVWދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHVDUHEDVHG much more on local decisions, and tools for generating a canonical order are less needed. The representation of vernacular structures is primarily connected to a local community. Contrarily, FDQRQLFDOVWUXFWXUHVLQDQHOLWHFRQWH[WDUHGH¿QHG IRUD UHJLRQDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIDSDUWLFXODU ideology.

#### 56 Chapter I

)RUދVLPSOHތYHUQDFXODUVWUXFWXUHVJHRPHWULFDODQGSURSRUWLRQDORUGHULPSO\DKLJKHUQHHGIRU precision in construction. Two basic tools were applied as units of measurement. One is the use of DEVROXWHPHDVXUHPHQWXQLWVZKLFKDUHGH¿QHGE\ERG\PHDVXUHVSRVVLEO\E\DSSO\LQJWKHPWR DURSHRUDVWLFN7KHRWKHULVWKHXVHRIUHODWLYHPHDVXULQJXQLWVZKLFKDUHGH¿QHGE\WKHXVHRI *moduli*. In this case, certain *moduli* are used for the geometric organisation of the whole layout. This approach enables a proportional interrelation of single architectural elements and brings it in relation to a superior programmatic idea.

This kind of modularity is the basis of further proportional relations between the single parts of early Tibetan religious structures. The applied method shows hypothetical similarities between early Central Tibetan temples (7th to 10th century CE) and early West Tibetan structures (late 10th to c. 12th century CE). A basic feature of early Tibetan geometric order is the proportional relation between the *dukhang* (assembly hall) and the *tsangkhang* (*cella*). The latest examinations raise the hypothesis that the application of the layout may have started with the geometric centre of the *dukhang,* from where the whole *dukhang* and also the position of the *tsangkhang* were geo-PHWULFDOO\GH¿QHG

The trapezoidal shape seems to have been a kind of predecessor of the rectangular shape, in par-WLFXODURIWKHVTXDUH)HDWXUHVOLNHWKHenclosure wall or the marking of the four corner points by *chorten* in a centralised layout were already part of trapezoidal-shaped settlement layouts in early imperial Central Tibet (7th to 10th century CE). Main forms, which were often used as ground plans for religious structures, are absolute geometric forms, primarily the circle, and rectangu-ODUVKDSHVPDLQO\WKHVTXDUH7KHVKDSHRIWKHWUDSH]RLGORVHVLWVLPSRUWDQFHLQWKHGHVLJQRI Buddhist structures.

In Tibetan Buddhism, the concentric organisation around a central pivot became a common feature, which correlates with the circumambulating movement of the pilgrim. The circumambula-WLRQLVDFRPPRQULWXDOSUDFWLFHDQGLVVSDWLDOO\GH¿QHGE\SDUWLFXODUURXWHVVXFKDVWKH*nangkor*, the *barkor* or the *lingkor*\$VZHNQRZIURPWRGD\¶VXVHWKHFRQFHQWULFGHVLJQGH¿QHVWKHURXWHV of circumambulating pilgrims and becomes another kind of a FDQRQLFDOIHDWXUHIRUWKHGH¿QLWLRQ RIVDFUHGVSDFH7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIVXFKVWUXFWXUHVFRQQHFWHGHJWRWKHSRVLWLRQRISURWHFWRUVތ chapels, is already existent in the early imperial period of Central Tibet.

5HODWHGWRWKHFHQWUDOFRUHDFDUGLQDODQGLQWHUPHGLDWHORFDWLRQRISURWHFWLQJDUWHIDFWV±VXFKDV 5LJVXP\*|QSR±RUQDWXUDOSKHQRPHQD±VXFKDVPRXQWDLQVDVSURWHFWLQJHOHPHQWV±DUHWRROVWR GH¿QHDVDFUHGVSDFHHJLQLhasa this space is denoted as the "/KDVD0DঌDOD´3URWHFWLRQRQD SKLORVRSKLFDOOHYHOVHHPVWREHDPDLQGULYHUIRUWKHHUHFWLRQRIHDUO\UHOLJLRXVHGL¿FHV([DPSOHV are the border protecting temples around the Lhasa Jokhang, the erection of 5LJVXP\*|QSRRURI HQFORVXUHZDOOVZKLFKGXHWRWKHLUVPDOOVL]HFDQEHSULPDULO\LQWHUSUHWHGDVIXO¿OOLQJDUHOLJLRXV and not a mundane defensive purpose. Protection of a religious centre or a religious programme in a philosophical context was materialised with protecting enclosure walls surrounding the monastic compounds. The erection of an HQFORVXUHZDOOGH¿QHVDEDVLFSDUWRIWKHOD\RXWRIVHYHUDO early Tibetan religious sites. The HQFORVXUHZDOOLVRQHNLQGRIVWUXFWXUHZLWKLQDVHWRIGL൵HUHQW DUWHIDFWVDQGQDWXUDOSKHQRPHQDZKLFKGH¿QHPDUNHUVDORQJSLOJULPURXWHV7KH\DUHEDVLFIRU WKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDVDFUHGVSDFHZKLFKLVFRQQHFWHGWR7LEHWDQFXOWXUDO]RQHV

In religious programmes, protection is an essential matter that is expressed by particular religious SURWHFWLQJ¿JXUHV7KHVH¿JXUHVKDYHWKHLUSDUWLFXODUSRVLWLRQZLWKLQDVDFUHGVSDFHLQDSDLQWHG modelled or sculpted form. The position of particular artefacts within a religious structure and the UHODWHGDUFKLWHFWXUDOSODQIROORZDVSHFL¿FUHOLJLRXVSURJUDP7KLVUHVXOWVLQYDULRXVNLQGVRILQWHU alia mandalic and pentalic shapes. The pentalic structure is one of the basic design patterns used WRGH¿QHWKHULWXDOVSDFHRIWKHFRUHWHPSOHVRIHDUO\7LEHWDQUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHV6XFKSHQWDOLF designs are connected with ideological programs and social structures.

\$QRWKHUWRROIRUWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDXQLYHUVDOFRQFHSWLVWKHFKRLFHRISDUWLFXODURULHQWDWLRQVRI structures. In Tibet use of relative orientations can already be observed in pre-imperial time at the construction of burial mounds, which primarily follow relative orientations contrary to Mongolian and Central Chinese comparative examples from a similar period. A certain trend of using relative orientations was maintained at early Central and West Tibetan temple structures. The use of an absolute orientation seems to be of importance for some of the *tsuglagkhang*s, while some of the secondary temples within temple compounds or the group of border taming temples follow a pattern of its own (with some evidently related to a central temple). Evidence is given for an inter-relation between orientations of building structures within monastic structural compounds.

,Q JHQHUDO LQ WKH 7LEHWDQ FXOWXUDO ]RQH ZH FDQ QRW GHGXFH DQ DOORYHU PHWKRG RI GH¿QLQJ D WHPSOHތVRULHQWDWLRQ7KHUHVXOWVRIUHVHDUFKVWDWHGL൵HUHQWPHWKRGVDSSOLHGIRUFHUWDLQWHPSOHV and temple compounds. The introduction of the orientation of celestial bodies can hypothetically be stated as a research result at the Lhakhang Chenmo of Khorchag. The observation of celestial ERGLHVUHJDUGLQJWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHSRVLWLRQDQGRULHQWDWLRQRIUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHVFDQEHDV-VXPHGWRSOD\DSDUWLFXODUUROH,QWKLV¿HOGIXUWKHUUHVHDUFKLVQHHGHG

%HVLGHVDGL൵HUHQFHLQWKHVWUHQJWKRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVWKHXVHRISDUWLFXODUPDWHULDOVDQGNQRZO-HGJHRIPDWHULDOSURFHVVLQJLVDQRWKHUWRROXVHGWRGH¿QHDUFKLWHFWXUHRIDSDUWLFXODUUHSUHVHQWD-WLYH VRFLDO VWDWXV7KLV GL൵HUHQWLDWLRQ VKRZV D VWURQJLPSDFW RQWKH TXDOLW\ RI VXUIDFHV RIWKH EXLOGLQJ 7KH LPSRUW RI PLQHUDOV IRU SDLQWLQJ TXDUU\LQJ DQG WUDQVSRUWLQJ *arga* or burnishing wall plasters are not part of the common vernacular material culture but rather of a certain social representation.

2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKH UDZPDWHULDOQHHGHG IRUSURFHVVLQJDVSHFL¿Fplaster may overlap with other building purposes such as making EULFNVSUHSDULQJDÀDWHDUWKroof, plastering pillars, making a traditional Tibetan stove or even making clay sculptures and pottery. The appropriate raw PDWHULDOVDUHQRWVWULFWO\VHSDUDWHGIURPHDFKRWKHUDQGVSHFL¿FDOO\QHHGHGWHFKQLFDOSURSHUWLHVRI raw materials may overlap and support each other. The use of particular clay is not primarily reserved for the HOLWHDVLVWKHFDVHIRUVSHFL¿FNLQGVRIZRRGRU*arga* stone. It is their processing in SDUWLFXODUZKLFKVKDSHVDGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQދVLPSOHތDQGHOLWHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIDVRFLDOVWDWXV

In order to get closer to this complex matter in material culture, the following chapter on material traditions discusses several of the locally available materials, their processing and possible methods of investigation.

### II. MATERIAL TRADITIONS: RAW MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUES

This chapter examines the interrelation between properties of raw materials and the applied pro-FHVVLQJPHWKRGV7KH¿UVWSDUWR൵HUVDJHQHUDORYHUYLHZRIWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIWKHXVHRIORFDOWHU-PLQRORJ\ZLWKLQWKHVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKRIPDWHULDOV6FLHQWL¿FH൵RUWVDUHVSHFL¿FDOO\HPSKDVLVHG 7KUHHGL൵HUHQWFUDIWVDUHGLVFXVVHGLHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDÀDW roof, making of pottery and making of clay sculptures, all of which are based on mineral raw material. Raw materials and related processing methods are juxtaposed in a historical and present context.

# 6ංඇංൿංർൺඇർൾඈൿඅඈർൺඅඍൾඋආංඇඈඅඈඒ ඐංඍඁංඇඍඁൾඌඍඎൽඒඈൿൻඎංඅൽංඇඍඋൺൽංඍංඈඇඌ

Building traditions are carriers of information on functional aspects and social needs based on a particular agreement within a certain community. From a social-anthropological point of view, VXFKLQIRUPDWLRQPD\JLYHDQVZHUVWRTXHVWLRQVRQWHFKQLFDODQGUHODWHGVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQVDQG developments at a certain time or over a certain period of time and within a certain local or regional context.

One approach to moving closer to a broad material understanding is research on technological and VRFLDODVSHFWVXVLQJORFDOWHUPLQRORJ\\$QH[DPSOHLVWKHWHUPLQRORJ\XVHGIRUVSHFL¿FW\SHVRI FOD\WKDWDUHNQRZQDV¿QHPDWHULDOIRUplasters or roofs within the Himalayas. One material that is widely known as *markalak* in Ladakh (Feiglstorfer 2014: 378) is known by the similar term of *narkalak* several hundreds of kilometres further away in Purang, while in Upper Kinnaur, an area in northern India located between Ladakh and Purang, this material is known as *tua.* Further to the east, in Central Tibet, it is referred to as *thigsa*. Locally used terms support research on particular material properties and construction methods. They give evidence of the origin of materials and their use and become a local marker in a material and social-anthropological context. A striking UHVXOWRIWKLVUHVHDUFK)HLJOVWRUIHU൵ZDVWKHFRQFOXVLRQWKDWRYHUVXFKDZLGHGLVtance the material, which was described partially under a similar name, also shows similar material properties suitable for particular technical needs.

Regarding material properties, with this step in research on transmission of traditional knowledge, similarities in the use of particular materials become evident. It invites further investigations into WKH¿HOGRIFOD\VLQFHWKLVPDWHULDOGXHWRLWVORFDOO\YDU\LQJFRPSRVLWLRQVDQGLWVFKDUDFWHULVWLF to be mixed, is more complex to terminologically categorise compared to building materials such as metal or wood. Nevertheless, within historical sites, in particular religious buildings, which in many cases in the Himalayas are some of the oldest witnesses of local building traditions, we have WRUHJDUGWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIORFDOPDWHULDOVSHFL¿FDWLRQV6WXG\LQJWKHQHWZRUNRIRULJLQVRIXVHG materials such as clay, wood, stone, metal, etc. supports the understanding of traditional methods of processing and improves insights into crafts and craft traditions. Using local terminology LVSDUWRIDEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO¶VORFDOidentity and essential for further understanding of material properties in a coherent material-cultural context.

### (ൺඋඍඁඋඈඈൿඌൺඇൽ*ਁਇਁ*උඈඈൿඌൺർඈඇඍංඇඎංඍඒඈൿൺൿඅൺඍඋඈඈൿඍඋൺൽංඍංඈඇ

### 2.1 Two different types of a flat roof

Besides protection from natural elements, a roof also represents a social status. In the case of ÀDW roof constructions, representation may be given by the selection of particular raw materials and DKLJKHUTXDOLW\RIWKHDSSOLHGPHWKRGRIFRQVWUXFWLRQ3DUWLFXODUPHWKRGVZKLFKDUHDSSOLHGIRU PDNLQJÀDWroof constructions, are similar to those used for ÀRRUFRQVWUXFWLRQV7KHXVHRI*arga* DVDVSHFL¿FVWRQHLQVWHDGRIFOD\ZDVKLVWRULFDOO\PDLQO\HPSOR\HGIRUVWUXFWXUHVEHORQJLQJWR a religious and aristocratic society. At several buildings in Tibet, we still observe the application of this WHFKQLTXH7KHQHHGDULVHVIRUDQH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIVXFKVWRQHURRIVDQG their juxtaposition to common ÀDWURRIVPDGHRIFOD\

A current topic in the conservation of earth buildings is the leakage of traditional ÀDWURRIV2YHU the last decades in regard to vernacular structures, several problematic measures have been taken due to a loss of knowledge on the right construction process, lack of understanding of the proper raw material, or simply due to a lack of time. Examples include the use of plastic sheets for water SURR¿QJEULQJLQJWRRPXFKORDGRQWRWKHroof or using improper raw material. By learning from traditions, we receive the necessary information on the proper way to construct a long lasting ÀDW URRI,WLVQRWMXVWDTXHVWLRQRIWKHDSSURSULDWHTXDOLW\RIFOD\EXWDOOWKHVLQJOHFRPSRQHQWVRI construction go hand in hand to create the best possible structure.

,QJHQHUDOWKHUHDUHWZRGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIÀDWURRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVLQWKH+LPDOD\DVWKHÀDWHDUWK roof with clay as the uppermost layer, and the *arga* URRI ZLWK D VSHFL¿F NLQG RI VWRQH DVWKH XSSHUPRVWOD\HU)HLJOVWRUIHUDí7KHHDUWKroof can be found all over the Himalayas ZLWKUHJLRQDODQGORFDOVSHFL¿FDWLRQVJLYHQE\WKHDYDLODEOHUDZPDWHULDO6XFKDQHDUWKroof may GL൵HUIURPWKH*arga* roof, for example due to a less heavy subconstruction. The use of stones as load-bearing subconstruction could be examined at various *arga* roofs. The *arga* tradition is still practised in Tibet, primarily for structures representing a higher social status. In a recent research project at the IAG / BOKU, *arga* raw material was examined and basic material features analysed FI)HLJOVWRUIHU൵

In the following, some basic features of a Central Tibetan earth roof are juxtaposed to a Central Tibetan *arga* roof construction. For both methods, a similar subconstruction is used.47 Within the subconstruction, the basic carrier is a wooden construction consisting of *dungma* (Tib. g*dung ma*, "main beams") and *cham* (Tib. *lcam*, "secondary beams"), with an initial layer of *delma* (Tib. *dral ma*, small pieces of wood of a tree or a bush) on top. This layer is used in such an amount that the *cham* is no longer visible. Previously, *tsherma* (Tib. *tsher ma*, "thorns" or "bush"), which is laid as loose pieces onto the wooden subconstruction, was commonly used, but today any species of wood is applied. If less *cham* is used, a larger amount of *delma* is necessary and vice versa. The use of an organic layer on top of the *cham* and below a next upper layer of clay is widely known in the Himalayas. The type of organic materials depends on the local availability. In the Western

<sup>47</sup> At some examined *arga* roofs, the subconstruction is made with a higher content of stone to increase resistance against strong vibrations during ramming (see Fig. 2.2).

Himalayas for this organic layer materials, for example, grass such as *yakses* or *burze* are used (cf. )HLJOVWRUIHU48 The use of *yakses* and *burze*, in contrast, is not so common for building purpose in Central Tibet as it is in the Western Himalayas. When using stones for making the subconstruction, a layer of stones in varying sizes covers the layer of *delma* (cf. Feiglstorfer ൵1RWMXVWÀDWEXWDOVRURXQGVWRQHVDUHXVHGZLWKWKHDLPWRSUHVVGRZQRQWKHOD\HU of *delma.* In the case, where the layer of *delma* already shows high compression, fewer stones are necessary and vice versa. In-between the big stones rather small stones or sand (Tib. *sil bu*, "bits" or "pieces") are placed into remaining holes*.*

\$OD\HURIDVOLJKWO\VWLFN\FOD\WDNHQIURPWKH¿HOGFRYHUVWKHOD\HURIVWRQHV6XFKFOD\KDVQR SDUWLFXODUUHTXLUHGSURSHUW\WKRXJKLISRVVLEOHDUHGXFHGFRQWHQWRIVWRQHVLVSUHIHUUHG2QWKH RQHKDQGLWKDVWRFRYHUWKHVWRQHVEHORZRQWKHRWKHUKDQGLWLVWKHOD\HUWKDWFDUULHVWKHXSSHU mineral layer, which consists either of clay or of *arga*. The clay on top of the subconstruction is of *earth-moist* (Ger. *erdfeucht*) consistency, and it is thrown over the layer below, which is either a stone or an organic layer, where it remains either uncompressed or is compressed by beating, e.g. with wooden sticks. When drying, resulting cracks are covered and closed by the next upper layer. 8SWRWKLVOD\HUFRQVWUXFWLRQUHPDLQVVLPLODUIRUERWKÀDWearth roofs and *arga* roofs.

### 2.2 Earth roof construction

For the earth roof on top in Central 7LEHWDVSHFL¿FW\SHRIFOD\WKH*thigsa* (Tib. *thigs sa*)*,* is used )LJ,QWHUYLHZ3HQED7DVKL,WLVPXFK¿QHUWKDQWKHclay below and does not easily crack. It is compressed with wooden branches used as beaters. Whether or not the earth roof is waterproof depends on this layer. Before it starts raining, *thigsa* is applied onto the roof on a date chosen according to the Tibetan calendar. In relation to the orientation of the nest of the magpie, DGL൵HUHQWLDWLRQLVPDGHEHWZHHQ*tschogtsang* (Tib. *mchog tshang*, "best nest or house") as the clean and good orientation, and *bumdong* (Tib. *bum stong*) as the "empty vase", respectively, the wrong orientation.507KHVHRULHQWDWLRQVLQÀXHQFHWKHVLGHRIWKHroof, on which to start adding

<sup>48</sup> The tradition of using organic insulation layers is not restricted to the Himalayas. In particular organic substances DUHFRQQHFWHGWRVSHFL¿FORFDOEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV,QBam in Iran, for example, the bark of the date palm tree is used to waterproof the roof.

The term *ұVLOEXҲ*(Tib. *sil bu*GHVFULEHVVPDOOSHEEOHVDOVRNQRZQDV *toshug* (Tib. *tho shrug*)*.*

<sup>50</sup> According to an interview with Penba Tashi in Lhasa on December 3rd 2015. He mentions the magpie (Tib. *skya ga*ZULWWHQIRUP*kre skag*, spoken form), which lives in the close vicinity to settlements and builds a nest in the trees. The form of the nest is ball-like with one or two entrances. It is a common belief that, similar to humans, WKHVHELUGVKDYHWRSURWHFWWKHLUµKRPH¶IURPSUHFLSLWDWLRQ7KHHQWUDQFHRIWKHQHVWRSHQVFRQWUDU\WRWKHPDLQ GLUHFWLRQRIWKHUDLQ)RUWKHEXLOGHUWKHFKRLFHRIWKHULJKWWLPHWRPDNHWKHQHVWDQGWKHQHVW¶VRULHQWDWLRQDUHRI high importance. Related to this traditional belief is the expression *"kyaka thigsa",* which is also used for the application of *thigsa* according to this bird observation.

In the event of a roof leak, one can make a pilgrimage to Drag Yerpa (Tib. Brag Yer pa) in Phenpo. Legend says that the roof of the Lhasa Jokhang was not made of *arga* but also of clay, i.e. *thigsa,* and WKDWWKH¿UVWPDWHULDO which was used at the Lhasa Jokhang, originated from Drag Yerpa. On the one hand, this description emphasises WKHUHOLJLRXVLPSRUWDQFHRI'UDJ<HUSDDOVRRQDPDWHULDOFXOWXUDOOHYHORQWKHRWKHUKDQGLWSRLQWVWRZDUGVDPRUH common use of earth roofs in the imperial period of Central Tibet and a subordinate meaning of *arga*DVURR¿QJ material.

62 Chapter II

)LJ)LJ6HFWLRQRIDWUDGLWLRQDOÀDWHDUWKroof construction.

CT = Central 7LEHW:7 :HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DVFI)HLJOVWRUIHU

1 = *cham* (Tib. *lcam*, secondary beam), often placed on the *dungma* (Tib. *gdung ma*, main beam), the latter resting on one or more *kawa* (Tib. *ka ba*, pillar).

2 = *delma* (Tib. *dral ma*, small pieces of wood of a tree or a bush), e.g. willow branches are commonly used in WT.

 RUJDQLFOD\HUVSHFL¿FW\SHVRIJUDVVOLNH*yakses*XVHGLQ:7WKHXVHRIDQRUJDQLFOD\HULVFRPPRQO\ known in WT, but not everywhere in CT.

4 (ground layer) = *yamba* (Tib. *gyam pa*ÀDWVWRQHVRIWHQXVHGLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWKDQ*arga*URRIRIWHQ XVHGLQ&7RU3XUDQJUDUHO\XVHGLQ:7

4 (upper layer) = *dorug* (Tib. *rdo hrug*VPDOOVWRQHVXVHGLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWKWKH*yamba*EHORZWR¿OO gaps between the bigger stones.

5 = *thogdag* (Tib. *thog* ތ*dag*)LVWKH¿UVWOD\HURIFOD\

6 = *thigsa* (Tib. *thig sa*XSSHUDQG¿QHOD\HURIFOD\ZKLFKLVLQVRPHDUHDVWUDGLWLRQDOO\UHSODFHGRU simply added every year and maintained before rain falls.

clay. When of an *earth-moist*FRQVLVWHQF\EXWQRWVWLFN\HQRXJKWRVWLFNWRRQH¶V¿QJHUV*thigsa*  is spread over the roof in a thickness of app. 2 cm to 4 cm. This layer remains uncompressed. *Thigsa* does not contain stones and is known all over Central Tibet. It is still common, e.g. in Lhundrup County and in 7|OXQJ7LE6WRGOXQJIURPZKHUHPRVWRIWKH*thigsa* for Lhasa comes from. Locations, where one can dig up *thigsa,* are locally known as *thigsa lensa* (Tib. *thigs sa len sa*)*.* Penba Tashi explained *thigsa* in relation to his home village Grib in Lhundrup that it is commonly a material that is washed down from the hills by rain and that during rainfall, such places become muddy and slippery. This description points towards a type of clay with a high content of clay minerals. For maintenance of the roof, fresh *thigsa* is spread over the roof one to two times a year, while the layer of clay below remains unmaintained. Some families keep fresh *thigsa* for the next season at an edge of their roof. In winter, melting snow in particular has to be removed from the roof. Tashi Penba described this process of snow removal as being necessary as soon as shoe prints are visible in the snow. If not removed in time, the *thigsa* becomes moist and may leak in following seasons.

Fig. 2.2 Section of an *arga* roof. Showing a state before mixing clay and *arga* stones by ramming. 2UJDQLFOD\HU /D\HURIVWRQHV /D\HURIFOD\ 4 = Layer of *arga*.

### 2.3 *Arga* roof construction

The second preparation method for a ÀDWroof in Central Tibet is applying *arga* stones in several OD\HUVZLWKWKHVWRQHVEHFRPLQJ¿QHUWRZDUGVWKHWRSOD\HU)LJ8SWRWKHWRSRIWKH¿UVW OD\HURIFOD\WKHVXEFRQVWUXFWLRQUHPDLQVVLPLODUDVGHVFULEHGIRUÀDWHDUWKroof constructions. In some cases a stone subconstruction was made between the wooden rafters and the layer of clay RQWRSZLWKRXWXVLQJRUJDQLF¿EUHVDVLQVXODWLRQOD\HULQEHWZHHQ,WLVVDLGWKDWWKHTXDOLW\RIDQ *arga* roof increases from the bottom to the top, and it is the top that protects the roof from total FROODSVHHYHQLQWKHFDVHRIWKHFROODSVHRIDSLOODU,QWHUYLHZ.HOVDQJ\$KLJKTXDOLW\*arga* roof lasts many years, according to Grothmann (2011: 23) app. ten years, before the need for renovation arises.

In Feiglstorfer (2012a), a method for making an *arga* roof is described. After having collected the raw material and having crushed the *arga* stones into varying sizes, the work process is conducted LQWKHIROORZLQJGHVFULEHGVWHSVFI)HLJOVWRUIHU൵:LWKWKLVWHFKQLTXHZHDOVR¿QG several variations and descriptions about the size and preparation of the single layers. Fig. 2.2 shows average dimensions of surveyed *arga* roofs.


Map 2.1 Western and Central Himalayas. Sites related to *arga*. GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

Construction can be explained in single steps but has to be understood as a composite construc-WLRQDQGDVVXFKLWLVH൶FLHQWLQDVWDWLFDQGK\GURSKRELFPDQQHU7KHVWDWLFH൵HFWLVJLYHQE\ strong areal compression. Due to ramming and watering (steps A to C) that lasts several days, the compound of clay and *arga* becomes more and more homogenised. The small *arga* particles are pressed into the clay, and the clay from below is pressed towards the top, thus forming a KRPRJHQRXVPDVV)HLJOVWRUIHU7KHTXDOLW\RIFOD\GRHVQRWKDYHDQ\UHTXLUHG VSHFL¿FDWLRQWKXVDQ\FOD\ZLWKDORZDPRXQWRIVWRQHVFDQEHXVHG\$VDUHVXOWXSXQWLOQRZQR K\GUDXOLFLQÀXHQFHE\WKHFOD\FRXOGEHSURYHQ6LQFHQRWDOOH[DPLQHGW\SHVRI*arga* contained VPHFWLWHLWVLQÀXHQFHFDQDOVREHH[FOXGHG

7KHK\GURSKRELFH൵HFWLVJLYHQE\WUHDWPHQWRIWKHVXUIDFHZKLFKVWDUWVZLWKburnishing. Similar WRZKDWZDVPHQWLRQHGIRUWKH¿QLVKLQJRIpottery ware, the black paint used for window frames (*nagtsi*, Tib. *nag rtsi*) and wall plasters, by burnishing the surface is compressed, porosities are closed and the surface levelled. The substances used close the porosities and must be resistant to UV light and strong climatic changes. They must further be elastic and non-porous. These fea-WXUHVDUHDFKLHYHGZLWKDFRPELQDWLRQRIGL൵HUHQWÀXLGVXEVWDQFHV

n

According to information given by two monks in December 2015 at the Uru Katsel Temple, *arga* ZDVXVHGIRUSUHSDUDWLRQRIWKHPRQDVWHU\¶VQHZroof, but there are no *arga*TXDUULHVLQWKHFORVH vicinity. They received the *arga* raw material for recent reconstruction of the main temple from the Dogde (Tib. Dog sde) Valley, close to the 6HUD0RQDVWHU\2WKHUSODFHVIRUTXDUU\LQJ*arga* include the village of Serme517LE6DVPDGVHH+D]RG0DSZKLFKLVFORVHWRWKHHQG of the Chuchod (Chu shul, also Chu shur) District on the way to Nyemo (Tib. Snye mo), Drag Yerpa (Drag Yer pa) in the Kyichu (Skyid chu) region, and several places are located in Phenpo ¶3KDQSR0DS

Seven *arga* samples originating from pits in Central Tibet, West Tibet and Indian Himalayas were analysed regarding their bulk and clay-mineral composition, grain size distribution and colour VHH)HLJOVWRUIHU0DUOZKLFKLVXVHGDV*arga,* shows a content of calcite, ranging between 46% and 80% with the highest amount in the Indian Himalayas and the lowest in Central Tibet. Minerals like dolomite, hematite, gypsum or pyrite were absent in general, and minerals like 7Å and 14Å minerals, mica, amphiboles, phyllo silicates, TXDUW].DOLIHOGVSDU RU SODJLRclase are either absent or available only in small amounts. Regarding the clay mineral analysis conducted for all four of these samples originating from Central Tibet and Indian Himalayas, the following was determined: Two samples show a rather high content of smectite, which supports the absorption of water during ramming and compressing. For three samples, the content of illite ranged between 17% and 42%, while the sample from Phugtal in =DQJVNDUUHDFKHGZKLFK GL൵HUVVWULNLQJO\IURPWKHRWKHUH[DPLQHGVDPSOHV\$FRQWHQWRILURQR[LGHVH[HPSODULO\RIJRHthite in the sample from Phugtal, adds a yellowish colour. Inclusion of hematite, lepidocrocite or manganese adds a red, orange or black colour, respectively. This aspect seems important in a context of representing a particular social status, with a reddish colour being favoured for religious structures, for instance.

\$QLPSRUWDQWIDFWLVWKDWGL൵HUHQWFUDIWVVXFKDVplastering of a wall or the preparation of the surface of pottery, of a clay sculpture or of an *arga* roof, are technically related to each other, even ZKHQWKH\DUHFRQQHFWHGWRGL൵HUHQWFUDIWV5HJDUGLQJWKHWUHDWPHQWRIVXUIDFHVWKHVHPLQHUDO based crafts are interrelated regarding the use of similar raw material and the way of processing. \$QH[DPLQDWLRQZKLFKKDVVRIDUQRWEHHQFRQGXFWHGIRUWKH+LPDOD\DVLQYROYHV¿QGLQJV\QHUgies between methods of construction and the raw material used. Such a study is inter alia connected to the correlation between raw material resources and methods of processing. This method RIH[DPLQDWLRQUHTXLUHVDKLJKHUOHYHORIUHVHDUFKH൵RUWWKDQMXVWIRFXVLQJRQWHFKQLFDODVSHFWVRI URRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVIRULQVWDQFHVLQFHDKLJKH൵RUWLQLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\H[FKDQJHLVQHHGHG)RU WKDW SXUSRVHPHWKRGRORJLFDOO\ DQ DUFKLWHFWXUDO DQG QDWXUDO VFLHQWL¿F EDFNJURXQG FRPSOHPHQW each other well, as demonstrated in particular in Chapter III.

Bellezza (2015) describes the method of burnishing pots in the Chugong period in Central Tibet DURXQGí%&(7KLVWHFKQLTXHLVJOREDOO\ZHOONQRZQOHDGLQJXVWRIXUWKHULQYHVWLJDWH this method of treatment of the upper surface of plasters. In research at the IAG / BOKU, ex-SHULPHQWVIRFXVHGRQWKLV¿HOGVKRZHGFOHDUGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHEXUQLVKLQJEHKDYLRXURIGL൵HUHQW mixtures. Further it turned out that the raw material used for plaster of the Nyarma Tsuglagkhang IRXQGHGLQ&(VKRZHGDQLGHDOPLQHUDOFRPSRVLWLRQIRUWKLVWUHDWPHQW)HLJOVWRUIHU

<sup>51</sup> The village of Serme has not yet been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

൵7KHVDPHFOD\ZKLFKZDVFROOHFWHGIURPSODFHVFORVHWRWKHEXLOGLQJVLWHZDVXVHGIRU bricks and also for the lower and the upper plaster layer. For the single components, the clay was WUHDWHGLQGL൵HUHQWZD\VE\VLHYLQJdesludging and mixing with straw. In this way, the properties of the clay could be adjusted to its use.

Due to large wall surfaces within temple halls, the method of burnishing is rather time consuming. In 2014, the author observed this method at the Uru Katsel Temple in Central Tibet (Fig. 2.3). Here women standing beside each other in a row burnished the expansive wall surfaces to prepare them to be painted in the next stage. In 2015, the author examined the same surfaces at the Uru Katsel Temple again, which were now evenly burnished with a shiny mirror-like surface, and still free of cracks (see Chapter I, Fig. 1.15).

This brief review of burnishing brings us back to the treatment of the *arga* roof, for which a similar method is applied. Contrary to the surface of clay, which is burnished to a *leather hard* (Ger. *lederhart*) consistency in order to be used for pottery, plaster, or clay sculptures, the surface of the *arga* roof needs more humidity, in particular during the process of mixing and compacting WKHFOD\DQGVWRQHOD\HU%HIRUHWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIZDWHUSURR¿QJÀXLGVRQWKH*arga*, burnishing is a proper method to compress the supporting material and to close its porosities. At the IAG / BOKU, material tests for the *arga* were performed to observe its behaviour after burnishing.

Several features are crucial for the functioning of the burnishing process. The grain size distribu-WLRQRIWKHEXUQLVKHGPDWHULDOLVEDODQFHGEHWZHHQ¿QHDQGFRDUVHPDWHULDO7KH UHVXOWVRIWKH

Fig. 2.4 Burnished surface of a clay plaster under the REM with 15,000 WLPHV PDJQL¿FDWLRQ 6LOLFDWH VKHHWV are homogenously compressed over a large part. Observation conducted at the IPM / BOKU in 2015.

test show that a too high content of clay minerals turns the surface of the substance into a greasy layer. An REM (scanning electron microscope) picture shows that for the burnished surface silicate sheets are laid horizontally and homogenously compressed (Fig. 2.4). Due to a high amount of phyllo silicates, these sheets slide onto each other and do not show cohesion. On the contrary, FOD\ZLWKDKLJKHUFRQWHQWRI¿QHsand keeps the surface homogenous and stops the continuous sliding of the silicate sheets.

With proper grain size distribution, the time and pressure of burnishing becomes relevant. \$SSOLFDWLRQRISUHVVXUHWKDWLVWRRKLJKUHVXOWVLQWKHH൵HFWGHVFULEHGDERYHLHPRYLQJRIVLOLFDWH sheets against each other, leading towards a cracking of the surface. With a decrease of the water content, the pressure can be increased. The so-called *"*leather hard*"* consistency is an elastic term and is very much related to the particular use. The content of water leads us to another important precondition for the burnishing process. In general, it is material-related and certainly related to WKHFUDIWVPDQ¶VH[SHULHQFH8QGHUWKH5(0DKXPLGFOD\PL[WXUHVKRZVUDWKHUELJFKDQQHOVEH-WZHHQWKHVLOLFDWHOHDYHVIRUZDWHUWUDQVSRUW±DFRQGLWLRQEHLQJQRWLGHDOIRUburnishing. In such a case, the pressure leads to removal of water but not to a stabile compression of the mixture. For wall plaster or the surface of pottery, burnishing under such conditions causes unevenness. The surface must reach such a low water content that the pressure does not cause displacements of clay particles. This can be used as a simple explanation of the term *ұOHDWKHUKDUGҲ* in the context RIUHDFKLQJDFHUWDLQVWDJHRIFRPSDFWLRQDQGGHZDWHULQJFI)HLJOVWRUIHU൵<sup>52</sup>

#### 2.4 Discussion

Traditional Central Tibetan ÀDWURRIVLQFOXGHWZRGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIPDNLQJDÀDWHDUWKroof and an *arga* stone roof. The *arga* URRILVRIDKLJKHUTXDOLW\ZKHQLWFRPHVWRORQJHYLW\DQGGXHWR WKHJUHDWDPRXQWRIQHHGHGFRQVWUXFWLRQH൵RUWDQGKLJKFRVWVLWLVUHVHUYHGIRUWKHXSSHUVRFLDO class, aristocracy and monasteries. Use of such roofs is related to the representation of a particular social status. By that, the short distance of transport is not of primary relevance, though of high LPSRUWDQFHLVWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLYHTXDOLW\,WLVQRWFOHDUZKHQWKLVWUDGLWLRQEHJDQ\$QHDUO\¿QGLQJ

<sup>52</sup> In contrast to the process of a simple compression of the clay-*arga* mixture, according to Satish (2003: 528), bur-QLVKLQJZLWKRLOEDVHGRQQDWXUDORUJDQLFVFDXVHVDFKHPLFDOLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKDK\GURSKRELFH൵HFW

#### 68 Chapter II

of *arga* used for a ÀRRUFRQVWUXFWLRQGDWHVEDFNWRWKHLPSHULDOSHULRGRI&HQWUDOTibet (Martin 2013). There is evidence that in the original state of the Jokhang in Lhasa, for example, the roof was simply made of clay.

*Arga* stone itself shows a relatively high content of FDOFLWHDQGWRWKHEHVWRIWRGD\¶VNQRZOHGJH QRK\GUDXOLFSURSHUWLHV7KHZD\LQZKLFKRQHVWUDWL¿HVDQGWUHDWVWKHVLQJOHOD\HUVHQDEOHVDFRPpaction and conglomeration of the single components between the layers from below to the top DQGYLFHYHUVD,QWKHFRXUVHRIUDPPLQJ¿QHQHVVDQGGHQVLW\RIWKHVLQJOHOD\HUVDUHFKDQJHG The processing of the surface layer with EXUQLVKLQJ FRUUHODWHV ZLWKPHWKRGV ZH ¿QGLQ RWKHU crafts, for example, for clay SODVWHUVSRWWHU\RUVWRYHV7KLVDVSHFWFODUL¿HVWKHPDWHULDOUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQGL൵HUHQWFUDIWV±DQDVSHFWWKDWSRLQWVWRZDUGVDQRSHQERUGHUFRQFHUQLQJWKHH[FKDQJH of information between the craftspeople. A terrazzo-like pattern is given by the colour of the minerals, dominated by colours of iron oxides. Since mineral colours vary between the single TXDUULHVWKHYLVXDOIHDWXUHVRI*arga*URRIVVKRZVOLJKWGL൵HUHQFHVWKRXJKWKLVFDQEHFRQWUROOHG E\FKRRVLQJVSHFL¿FPDWHULDOIURPFHUWDLQTXDUULHV/RFDOYDULDWLRQVDOVRGHULYHIURPQDWXUDOO\ changing mineral compositions. For example, some samples show a content of smectite and others do not.

Construction of an *arga* roof follows an economic and functional principle. The basic structure of the roof is kept simple, and follows the same pattern of construction of an earth roof. The upper OHYHOVDUHFKDQJHGDQGFRPELQHGZLWKWKHERWWRPOD\HUVLQDPRVWH൶FLHQWSK\VLFDOPDQQHU7KH involvement of the observation of the behaviour of birds in the process of construction and the XVHRIWKH7LEHWDQFDOHQGDUWRGH¿QHGDWHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVKRZWKHFRPSOH[UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ construction, nature and timely regulation within a Tibetan year.

The making of traditional ÀDWURRIVEDVHGRQFOD\LVLQJHQHUDOGHFUHDVLQJ)ODWearth roofs are dominant in the countryside, while *arga* roofs are related to social representative sites. Flat earth URRIVDUHHDVLHUWRPDNHDQGQRVSHFLDOVNLOOVDUHUHTXLUHGIRUSURFHVVLQJZKLOH*arga* roofs are technically more sophisticated and need to be supervised by a master. A labour force of up to eighty workers, as was the case for the renovation of the *arga* roof on the Gyümed Dratsang in Lhasa, comes with high costs. After the Chinese Cultural Revolution, *arga* roofs were substituted by cement, however, over the last years the tendency has shifted to a revival of traditional crafts. Concrete ÀRRUVDUHEHLQJGHPROLVKHGDQGUHSODFHGZLWK*arga* ÀRRUV+RZHYHUVRPHGLVWXUELQJ factors of modernisation remain and show the sensitivity of the whole compound towards modernising interventions, as the following example shows: During a visit at the Gyümed Dratsang in 2015, the *arga* roof, which was erected in 2014, showed cracks, which is atypical for *arga* roofs. In an interview in December 2015 with Jampa Kelsang, who coordinated the process of making the *arga* roof, he explained that contrary to the traditional method the clients wanted him to introduce a plastic sheet below the layer of clay. This sheet interrupts the air and moisture exchange EHWZHHQLQDQGRXWVLGHDQGOHDGVWRGL൵HUHQWVXUIDFHWHQVLRQV+XPLGLW\ZKLFKUHPDLQHGLQWKH construction, was not able to circulate in all directions but was instead led to the surface, where it caused cracks during a process of drying and freezing.

From a technical point of view, the *arga* roof is not necessarily limited to Himalayan regions, and WKHDGDSWDWLRQRIFXUUHQWPRGHUQUHVRXUFHVDQGWRROVWRWKHVHWUDGLWLRQDOPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHVLVD further aim of research.

Map 2.2 Central Tibet. Sites related to pottery. GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

### (ൺඋඍඁൻඎංඅൽංඇආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ3ඈඍඍൾඋඒൺඇൽඌඍඈඏൾආൺංඇඍඋൺൽංඍංඈඇඌ

### 3.1 Regional setting of this study

,Q&HQWUDO7LEHW ZH FDQ VWLOOWRGD\ ¿QG YLOODJHVOLNH%DUDE 7LE%D UDE ZKLFKLVORFDWHGLQ Medrogongkar County, where pottery making is a living craft tradition (Map 2.2). In earlier days this craft was more common in centres of pottery such as in Lempa (Tib. Len pa) close to the village of \*\DWVR6K|O53 (Tib. Rgya mtsho zhol) or in Kyilung (Tib. Skyid lung) Village in Phenpo 7LE¶3KDQSR,QBarab, pottery ware was produced and sold in Lhasa, where the guild of potters was located along the Barkor until the Cultural Revolution when the central bazaar closed. Today, mobile traders coming from around Lhasa sell much of the pottery ware that is available in Lhasa. To sell pottery ware, potters either bring their products to Lhasa or customers, who trust in their SRWWHUV¶JRRGTXDOLW\EX\GLUHFWO\DWWKHLUZRUNVKRSV,QLhasa, along the Sangra road (near the Ngachen road), it is still possible to buy SRWWHU\ZDUHDWD¿[LQVWDOOHGVKRS7UDGLWLRQDO pottery craft is also alive in the Shigatse region, but unlike in Barab, where natural colour use is common, the Shigatse region mostly does not utilise natural colours anymore. The use of natural FRORXULVRQHHVVHQWLDOFULWHULRQIRUWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHpottery produced in Barab and surrounding settlements. Chemical colours commonly used in central Chinese factories may spall easier when ¿UHGLQFRPSDULVRQWRQDWXUDOFRORXUV)RUWKHSRWWHURIWRGD\WKHSURGXFWLRQRIpottery is a side business in addition to farming and preferably conducted in winter on sunny days. In earlier days some potter families settled close to the observatory in 7DJSKX7LE6WDJSKXZKLFKLVDERXW km from Barab in a north-east direction, but in this village this craft is no longer alive.

<sup>53</sup> The village of \*\DWVR6K|O has not yet been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

Fig. 2.5 Pottery wheel with a ceramic mould before being covered with fresh clay.

In the nearby village of Thaba54, one or two families still practice the pottery craft. In contrast, in WKHYLOODJHRI%DUDELWVHOILQDERXW¿IW\IDPLOLHVVWLOONHSWWKLVWUDGLWLRQDOLYH<sup>55</sup>

The village of %DUDEZKHUH¿HOGUHVHDUFKZDVFRQGXFWHGKDVDORQJKLVWRU\LQ pottery. Tashi,56 a potter from this village, produces his pots in the courtyard (ground plan with app. 20 m x 15 m) of his house. In a northern corner of the courtyard, SRWWHU\ZDUHLVNHSWIRUGU\LQJZKLOH¿Q-LVKHGSRWVDUHVWRUHGLQVLGH7KHSRWWHU¶VZKHHOLV¿[HGLQWKHJURXQGRIWKHKLJKHUVHFWLRQRIWKH courtyard that adjoins the house. From this position, it is possible to face the direction of the sun ZKLOHZRUNLQJDQGWRORRNRXWRYHUWKHFRXUW\DUG¶VZDOOVWRWKHPRXQWDLQVORFDWHGLQWKHVRXWK Such a southern orientation of the house and the courtyard accelerates the drying process of the pottery ware.

### 3.2 Raw material for pottery and processing

Raw material for SRWWHU\ LV EURXJKW IURP GL൵HUHQW VLWHV )URP WKH YLOODJH RIBaklog (today: 7DVKLJDQJ7LE%NUDVKLVVJDQJRQHW\SHRIUHGFRORXUHGFOD\LVFROOHFWHGNQRZQDV*khampa* (Tib. *kham pa*). Ser (Tib. *gser*), which is locally described as yellow, originates from the hills south of Old Barab. Old %DUDE¶V UXLQV DUHORFDWHG GLUHFWO\WRWKH VRXWK RIWKH QHZ YLOODJH RI Barab. In order to process the basic material, these two types of clay have to be mixed to avoid later cracks. The proportion of the mixture depends on the kind of red of the *ser*. In the case of a strong red colour, the proportion of the mixture is 1:1, and if the red colour appears light, the proportion is changed to 1:½. Sand is added in a small amount to further avoid cracking in the case that the SRWWHU\LVWREH¿UHGZLWKRXWJOD]H7KLV¿QHsand is brought from Tsangthog57, a village that is mentioned by the potter Tashi to be also close by. In the case of glaze being used, sand is QRWDGGHGVLQFHWKHFRORXUZRXOGQRWUHPDLQRQWKHVDQG\VXUIDFH0L[LQJGL൵HUHQWLQJUHGLHQWV

55 Information given by the potter Tashi from Barab in December 2015.

<sup>54</sup> The village of Thaba has not yet been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

<sup>56</sup> In December 2015, the author had the chance to observe the working process of the Tashi family in Barab, being very thankful to Tashi and his family for their hospitality and support of this research.

<sup>57</sup> The village of Tsangthog has not yet been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

for preparation of basic pottery material is commonly known in the Himalayas. In the Western Himalayas in the village of Likir in /DGDNKVHH&KDSWHU,,,DVSHFL¿F¿QHsand is mixed with DVSHFL¿FW\SHRIFOD\,QNixi in the north-western region of Yunnan Province, so-called "black SRWWHU\´LVSUHSDUHGIURPWKUHHGL൵HUHQWVXEVWDQFHV=KDQJ\*X<sup>58</sup>

\$WWKH%DUDEZRUNVKRSWKHPL[WXUHLVVLHYHGXVLQJYHU\¿QHQHWV7RGD\WKHPHWKRGLVGRQHZLWK a sieve made of cloth, known as *sangre* (Tib. *sang re*ZKLFKDUH¿QHEOXHSODVWLFFRDWVSULPDULO\ PDGHIRUEXLOGLQJSXUSRVH,QHDUOLHUGD\V¿QHO\ZRYHQWH[WLOHVIRUH[DPSOH*khatak*s (Tib. *kha btag*ZHUHXVHGDVGHVFULEHGE\7DVKL¶VZLIH,Q1L[LIRUFRPSDULVRQD¿QHPHVKRIZRRGHQ baskets is used for sifting red clay and white VDQG=KDQJ\*X,QJHQHUDOEHIRUH processing the mixture, it is kneaded and has to rest for a while in a covered condition. For that SXUSRVHSODVWLFVKHHWVDUHFXUUHQWO\XVHG,QHDUOLHUGD\VVSHFL¿FSRWVZHUHSUHSDUHGLQZKLFKWKH clay was stored and covered by a lid.

In Barab, pots are made in an economic fashion, wherein a series of pots is formed using a ceramic mould (Fig. 2.5). The wheel itself is turned by hand, contrary to using a stick, which we know, for example, from Himachal Pradesh in ,QGLD3HUU\PDQRURQH¶VIHHWEHORZ ground, as we have seen, for example, from Maroc.60 In Ladakh, in contrast, pottery made in the VZDVVWLOOSULPDULO\PRXOGHGE\KDQG%KDQFRQWUDU\WRWKHDXWKRUကVREVHUYDWLRQ in Likir in 2018, when the pottery wheel was commonly in use.

The use of a pottery wheel in Tibet goes back to c. 4000 BCE (Interview Shaki Ongdu 2015), while the pottery found along the Neolithic site at Karub (c. 4700 BCE) was at this time still formed by hand. Pottery at the archaeological site of Chugong at the periphery of Lhasa was already in c. 4000 BCE produced on the wheel, particularly in an advanced phase, while in an earlier state, pottery was produced by hand without using a wheel. Chugong SRWWHU\ZDV¿UHGDWD higher temperature, resulting in a shiny black surface. A further feature of advanced technology in Chugong compared with Karub is the rounded bottom and the addition of three small feet instead RIWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIDÀDWERWWRP&KD\HW7KHFRORXUZDVSULPDULO\GDUNUHG


60 In Nixi, only a banding wheel for modelling but not a pottery wheel is used (Elliott 2011: 12).

<sup>58</sup> At Nixi workshops, the three substances are explained as coarse red clay, a white VDQG=KDQJ\*X and TXDUW]ZKLFKLVKHDWHGXQWLOWXUQLQJLQWRDJUH\RUEODFNFRORXU,WLVWKHUHDIWHUFRROHGDQGSXOYHULVHG(OOLRWW \$OOLQJUHGLHQWVDUHJDWKHUHGIURPQHDUE\KLOOV=KDQJ\*X

The use of a mould is also common in Nixi (Elliott 2011: 11).

<sup>61</sup> 7KLVLQGLFDWLRQLVK\SRWKHWLFDO7KH¿QHUTXDOLW\RIWKHSRWWHU\PD\DOVREHUHODWHGWRWKHXVHRIGL൵HUHQWUDZPDterials or a development in the methods of processing.

<sup>62</sup> For the method of burnishing mineral surfaces, see the information given on *arga* roofs in this publication.

#### 72 Chapter II

Yuchanyan Cave and to c. 20,000 BCE in Xianrendong (Shelach-Lavi 2015: 57).63 In the early Neolithic period, the earliest ceramic vessels were moulded by hand (ibid. 87), while already GXULQJWKHODWHSKDVHRIWKH1HROLWKLFSHULRGWKHXVHRIDSRWWHU¶VZKHHOZDVNQRZQ,QFRQWUDVW in .DVKPLU%KDQGHVFULEHVWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKHSRWWHU¶VZKHHOWRKDYHRFFXUUHG around 3000 BCE.64

In %DUDEDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHSURFHVVRQWKHSRWWHU¶VZKHHODVPDOODPRXQWRI¿QHO\FUXVKHG ¿UHGpottery material is spread over the mould to keep it from sticking together. In order to compress the clay onto the mould (see Fig. 2.5) and to bring it into form, a wooden paddle is used (Fig. 2.6).657KHSRWLVFRQWLQXRXVO\NHSWKXPLGZLWKEUXVKHVRIGL൵HUHQWVL]HVPDGHIURPSLJ¶V hair (2.7).

In order to smooth the surface, a certain pressure is applied onto the pot with pieces of soft yak leather.66 Processing of one of the small incense holders takes app. 15 minutes. Thereafter the pot is covered with a textile to decelerate the speed of drying, thus avoiding cracks. Many pots DUHXVHGMXVWEHLQJ¿UHGEXWZLWKRXWDJOD]H,IWKHSRWLVWREHJOD]HGWKHJOD]HLVDSSOLHGDIWHU GU\LQJDQGEHIRUH¿ULQJ7KHPLQHUDOWUDGLWLRQDOO\XVHGWKURXJKRXWWKHUHJLRQLV*shado* (Tib. *zha rdo*), which in earlier days was collected at Muning67. Today it originates from a valley called Ba located in Medrogongkar. Graining of this mineral is conducted without water, as it is necessary for minerals used for painting colours to be grained in trays of stone (Fig. 2.8). *Shado* is grained onto a stone plate after being crushed into small pieces. The whole process of graining *shado* to the size of a few cubic centimetres takes app. one hour. After graining, it is applied onto the pot with a brush.

,Q%DUDESRWVDUH¿UHGRQO\RQFHHLWKHUZLWKRUZLWKRXWJOD]H:LWKRXWJOD]HWKHSRWDSSHDUVUHG )LJZKLOHWKHVXUIDFHFRORXUWXUQVOLJKWGDUNGRWWHGEURZQZKHQWKHWUDGLWLRQDOJOD]HLV DGGHG,QRUGHUWR¿UHWKHSRWVLQWKHFRXUW\DUGDQRYHQLVHUHFWHGWHPSRUDULO\ZLWK*lamak* (Tib. *la mag*) (Fig. 2.10), which is a substance with a slight amount of clay and a large amount of organic tubular stems. This material is obtained in the close vicinity to the settlement from a marshy terrain (Fig. 2.11). The *lamak*LV¿OOHGLQWRWKHJDSVEHWZHHQDQGRYHUWKHSRWVEHIRUHVHWWLQJWKH ¿UH686PDOOFHUDPLFWULSRGVSDFHUVDUHSXWEHORZWKHSRWVWROLIWWKHPIURPWKHJURXQG7KH¿UHLV NHSWIRUDERXWKRXUV2QWKHIROORZLQJGD\WKH¿UHGSRWVDUHFKHFNHGDQGLIQHFHVVDU\IUHVK *lamak* is added.


<sup>63</sup> \$FFRUGLQJWR%RDUHWWRHWDODQG:XHWDOLQ6KHODFK/DYLWKLVLVWKHHDUOLHVWHYLGHQFHRI ceramic production in the world.

<sup>64</sup> 8QWLOWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKHSRWWHU¶VZKHHOLQKashmir, kneaded *karewa* clay has been put in layers around a mass DQGWKHVXUIDFHKDGEHHQ¿QLVKHGZLWKZRRGHQVWLFNVRUSLHFHVRIERQHDQGDWOHDVWZLWKDGDEEHU%KDQ

Fig. 2.6 (Top) Use of a wooden paddle to mould the clay.

)LJ%HORZ%UXVKHVPDGHIURPSLJ¶VKDLU

Fig. 2.8 (Top) Tools and minerals (*shado*) for graining.

)LJ%HORZ)UHVKSRWVFRYHUHGZLWKWH[WLOHVWRSUHYHQWGU\LQJDWWRRIDVWDUDWH

Fig. 2.10 (Top) *Lamak*VWDFNHGLQIURQWRIWKHSRWWHU¶VKRXVH

Fig. 2.11 (Below) Marsh land in front of the village of Barab, from where *lamak* is collected.

#### 76 Chapter II

Form and method of making are related to particular needs, one being the need for the *surkhok* (Tib. *zur khog*³EXUQLQJJLYLQJR൵HULQJ´ZKLFKLVULWXDOO\XVHGZKHQVRPHRQHSDVVHVDZD\7KH SRWLV¿OOHGZLWKVZHHWVEDUOH\RU*tsampa* and hung on the door of the respective family. Other types of pottery ware include the following:

Â Incense holder (Tib. *bsang phor*).


In the village of Likir in Ladakh, the tradition in pottery has existed for generations. A son of the family Langdopa (house name) is still involved in production, and he explains the individual types of raw material (Feiglstorfer 2014: 372). As a material-cultural aspect, it is again the availability of FOD\ZLWKVSHFL¿FSURSHUWLHVZKLFKPDNHVDSDUWLFXODUFOD\DSSURSULDWHIRUSRWWHU\PDNing. At the IAG / BOKU, the material properties of the used raw material were examined. The use of a particular species of sand from a pit along the west side of the village helps to avoid the occurrence of cracks in the ceramics. This sand contains a small amount of smectite that enables better cohesion with the clay and supplements properties of the clay such as swellability (see Chapter III).

### 3.3 *Thab* and its material relation to pottery

This study has revealed similar clay properties between pottery and clay stove and furthermore EHWZHHQWKHWZRGL൵HUHQWVHWWOHPHQWVLikir and Basgo. This leads us to another important topic related to Himalayan pottery and architecture: the production of clay stoves, the so-called *"thab"*<sup>70</sup> 7LE³VWRYH´7KHUHDUHQRWPDQ\HOGHUVOHIWWRSDVVRQWKLVGZLQGOLQJNQRZOHGJHUHODWHGWRWKH *thab*. These massive stoves (see Chapter III) are produced in situ and become a non-moveable SDUWRIWKHEXLOGLQJ7KH\DUHPRGHOOHGRIFOD\DQGQRW¿UHG7KHLUVXUIDFHLVWUHDWHGZLWKVSHFL¿F VXEVWDQFHVDQGEXUQLVKHGWRPDNHWKHPZDWHUSURRI7KHFOD\LWVHOIPXVWEH¿UHUHVLVWDQWPHDQing it must not shrink or swell and be free of any cracks. In this matter, several places in Likir and %DVJRKDYHDVSHFL¿FFOD\WKHVRFDOOHG *"thabsa"* (Tib. *thab sa*). A description of the process of making a *thab* is given in Feiglstorfer (2014: 383, 384). Following further material research at

Interview with Penba Tashi from Nyemo on the way from Lhasa to Medrogongkar on December 18th, 2015.

<sup>70</sup> Another matter in earth architectural materials is tiles. Their use in the Himalayas is of subsidiary importance GXHWRWKHODUJHDPRXQWRI¿UHZRRG&HUDPLFVXVHGLQDUFKLWHFWXUHZH¿QGLQORZHUPRXQWDLQRXVUHJLRQVRIWKH +LPDOD\DV±LQ&KLQDNepal or Jammu and Kashmir.

the IAG / BOKU on clay used for traditional Tibetan stoves and on the inner coating of a *tandoor* VWRYHLWZDVSRVVLEOHWRH[SORUHWKHEDVLFPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHVRI VSHFL¿FSURSHUNLQGVRIFOD\ .QRZOHGJHRIWKHVHSURSHUWLHVHQDEOHVXVWRUHÀHFWRQWKHLUEHKDYLRXUGXULQJSURFHVVLQJDQGWR FDWHJRULVHWKH UHTXLUHPHQWV QHHGHGWR UHDFK SDUWLFXODU TXDOLWLHV IRUH[DPSOH¿UH UHVLVWDQFH RU low shrinkage. A detailed description of the used method of investigation is given in Chapter III.

In Central Tibet, a *thab*LVFRPPRQO\NQRZQEXWKRZWRSURFHVVDKLJKTXDOLW\*thab* is not as clearly observed in Ladakh. When talking to Penba Tashi71 from Nyemo, a 30-year-old Tibetan, ZKRZDVRXUJXLGHGXULQJ¿HOGUHVHDUFKLQKHGLGQRWLQGLFDWHDQ\GL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQD VWRYHPDGHRIµDQ\¶NLQGRIFOD\HDVLO\DYDLODEOHIURPWKHVXUURXQGLQJDUHDVDQGDVWRYHSURGXFHG ZLWKDVSHFL¿FNLQGRIFOD\ZLWKSDUWLFXODUSURSHUWLHVDVWKHDXWKRUFRXOGREVHUYHIRUH[DPSOH for the stoves made in Ne in /DGDNKVHH&KDSWHU,,,-XVWLQUHIHUHQFHWRWKHPDWHULDO¶VXVHIRU Penba Tashi from Nyemo the term *"thab sa"* had no further meaning in terms of particular mate-ULDOTXDOLW\\$QRWKHU3HQED7DVKLD7LEHWDQRIDURXQGIRUW\\HDUVRIDJHIURP3KHQER72 explained that in his village in Phenbo anyone can produce a *thab* whenever the need arises, which means that making a *thab* continues to be a living tradition in the countryside and the knowledge needed to construct a *thab* is still existent. In his description he mentioned a particular type of clay, of which he provided a sample for testing.

### 3.4 Discussion

The essence of the involvement of knowledge of the raw material of SRWWHU\DQGGL൵HUHQWPHWKods in processing in regard to the building material is closely related to earth building methods. 5HJDUGLQJWKHYHUQDFXODUXVHRIUDZPDWHULDOIRUZDWHUSURR¿QJRUKHDWUHVLVWDQFHVXUIDFHVVXFK as roofs or stoves have not been fully examined. A technical understanding of these traditions can LPSURYHDZDUHQHVVRIVSHFL¿FPDWHULDODQGVRFLDOSUHFRQGLWLRQVQHHGHGWRNHHSVXFKWUDGLWLRQV alive.

The way, in which SRWWHU\ZDUHLQ%DUDWLV¿UHGLVDQHFRORJLFPRGHOIRUDVXVWDLQDEOHDSSURDFK in that it uses the material from the marshy terrain adjoining the village. This material and the VKRUWGLVWDQFHRIWUDQVSRUWLVFKHDSDQGWKHHQHUJ\UHTXLUHGORZ6LPLODUO\WKHpottery material itself, i.e. clay and sand, is collected from a site that is as close as possible. In present day Barab, SRWWHU\WUDGLWLRQVHHPVXQD൵HFWHGE\WRXULVPEXWVX൵HUVIURPUHGXFHGVDOHVGXHWRWKHLPSRUWRI cheap Central Chinese pottery ware and the use of chemical glaze for imported ware. In Ladakh, in comparison, the pottery tradition has decreased, with only one pottery village in Likir. For <XQQDQDVDQRWKHU+LPDOD\DQH[DPSOH(OOLRWW±PHQWLRQVWRXULVPWR1L[L in the east of 7LEHWDVDPDLQIDFWRUIRUFKDQJH,QWKLVFDVHWKHUHTXHVWIRUpottery does not necessarily correlate with traditional forms. In Nixi¿ULQJLVFRQGXFWHGZLWKZRRGZKLFKLVUDWKHUYDOXDEOH compared to the marshy terrain used in Barat. At this place, government regulations such as restrictions on wood harvesting have been endangering pottery tradition.

<sup>71</sup> 3HQED7DVKL GHVFULEHVWKH TXDOLW\ RIFOD\ IURP UXLQVWR EH EHWWHU IRUPDNLQJD*thab*, though this has yet to be YHUL¿HG7KLVLQIRUPDWLRQPLJKWSRLQWWRZDUGVWKHSUHIHUHQFHRIVWLFN\FOD\IRUDEHWWHUPRGHOOLQJZLWKDFHUWDLQ proportion of sand as commonly used for building purpose.

<sup>72</sup> Interviews with Penba Tashi from Phenbo in /KDVDRQ1RYHPEHUth and December 18th, 2015.

For the *thab*PDGHRIDVSHFL¿FFOD\ZHOHDUQDERXWDVXVWDLQDEOHIRUPRID¿ULQJSODFHZLWKLQD residential building. The stoves are located in the living room and serve as a kind of centre for social life and communication within the living and cooking space. The *thab*LWVHOILVD¿[HGSLHFH of furniture. Other rooms in the house such as sleeping rooms are not heated, and the author observed for certain families that members sleep in the *chensa* (Tib.), which is a combined living / kitchen area. For warmth, thick blankets are used during the night and clothing is not necessarily changed for sleeping. Energy consumption for heating coincides with meal preparation. This situation also promotes communication within the family and with guests, since the main activities take place in the living room. A further social aspect is the operation of such stoves from a sitting position. On its top, several holes are made for the placement of pots, and side holes are needed IRU¿ULQJDLUFRQGLWLRQLQJDQGFROOHFWLQJDVK7KLVZRUNLQWHJUDWHVHOGHUIDPLO\PHPEHUVZKR RSHUDWHWKH¿ULQJRIWKHVWRYH

Maintaining such traditions is related to social conditions and constitutes an ecological way of OLYLQJ'L൵HUHQWFKDQJHVPD\HQGDQJHUWKHQHFHVVDU\VRFLDOSUHFRQGLWLRQV\$WWKHHQGRIWKHth century, Moravian missionaries introduced the metal stove to /DGDNK &ODUNH 7KLV LQWURGXFWLRQLVDQH[DPSOHRIHDUO\:HVWHUQPDWHULDOFXOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHV

An importance to keep pottery and stove traditions alive is the preservation of local knowledge of local material resources and of properties of materials. This knowledge is the main source for further use of the appropriate material for contemporary construction in a sustainable context. :LWKWRGD\¶VRSHQPDUNHWLWLVHDV\WRLQWURGXFHDUWL¿FLDODQGQRWVXVWDLQDEOHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOV IRUH[DPSOHIRUZDWHUSURR¿QJÀDWURRIV+DYLQJWKHSURSHUNQRZOHGJHRIORFDOFOD\DQGUHODWHG traditions of processing is essential for an ecological and sustainable approach. It emphasises the QHHGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHVSHFL¿FSURSHUWLHVRIPDWHULDOVXVHGIRUORFDOFUDIWV

### (ൺඋඍඁൻඎංඅൽංඇආൺඍൾඋංൺඅൺඇൽ%ඎൽൽඁංඌඍർඅൺඒඌർඎඅඉඍඎඋൾඌ

### 4.1 Regional and historical setting

Methods of making clay sculptures in Central Tibet follow a long tradition reaching back to at least the construction of the Samye Monastery in the 8th century CE. Using clay for sculptures shows a highly developed understanding of raw material and its processing, an aspect, which HQFRXUDJHVWKHVWXG\RIFOD\DVDEXLOGLQJPDWHULDODQGWRJDLQLQVLJKWLQWRGL൵HUHQWSURFHVVLQJ PHWKRGV7KHFUDIWRIWKHFOD\VFXOSWRUUHTXLUHVDSDUWLFXODUKLJKXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIERWKWKHQHHGHG material and the great skills essential for its handling.

Clay sculptures from Akhnur (6th century CE) and Ushkar (8th century CE) as dated by Varma73 ±EHORQJWRWKHHDUOLHVWH[DPSOHVRIclay sculptures in the north-west Indian region

<sup>73</sup> In his publication on *The Indian Technique of Clay Modelling,*9DUPD ± XVHV VHYHUDO DQFLHQWWH[WV Among those are the *.DĞ\DSDĞLOSD* from the 11th/12th century, the *9LPƗQƗUFDQƗNDOSD* from the 8th century, the *.DĞ\DSDMxƗQDNƗ۬ڲD* from a period earlier than the 16th century and the *6DPnjUWƗUFDQƗGKLNDUD۬D* from the 16th/17th century CE.

Map 2.3 Western Himalayas and Central Tibet. Places mentioned in the text, being related to traditions of making clay sculptures. GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

(Map 2.3). Along the northern Central Asian silk route, clay sculptures are predominant, while for the southern route, stucco ±a mixture of gypsum dust, sand and calcite ± was primarily used IRUWKHKHDGVRIVFXOSWXUHVDQGFOD\ZDVSUHIHUDEO\XVHGIRUWKHERGLHV<DOGL] Yaldiz also argues for the use of clay due to a lack of durable materials in this arid loess-dominat-HG]RQH9DUPDGHVFULEHVDVHSDUDWH¿ULQJRIWKHKHDGVLQDNLOQDQGWKHLUDWWDFKPHQW ZLWKDZRRGHQSHJWRWKHUHOLHYR,QFRQWUDVWPRVWRIWKHPXUDOGHFRUDWLRQZDVPRGHOOHGDQG¿UHG LQVLWXPHQWLRQLQJWKDWWKHTXDOLW\RI¿ULQJGHFUHDVHGWRZDUGVWKHZDOOLELG

In Central Tibet, sculptures in the Keru (Tib. Ke ru, former Kwa chu) Lhakang located east of Samye date back to the imperial period, and clay has been used as material for sculptures since HDUO\WLPHV&KD\HW0DS&RQWUDU\WRWKHPHWKRGGHVFULEHGIRUWKHWestern Himalayas ± where a compact mass is modelled around a supporting construction ±Chayet describes the sculptures as being made of a thin layer of clay around a wooden armature (see description below). Luczanits (2004: 18) mentions the statues of the Keru Lhakhang being partially hollow between clay and armature. This description refers to a method contrary to the one used in the Western Himalayas, in Kashmir or in Fondukistan. This method is still practiced today in a Lhasa workshop and possibly points towards a more than thousand years old Central Tibetan tradition. The description of sculpture construction at Tsaparang ± with VWUDZ¿UVWwrapped around DZRRGHQ VXEFRQVWUXFWLRQZKLFKLVFRYHUHGZLWKDWH[WLOH EHIRUH¿QDOO\ RYHUOD\LQJZLWKFOD\ (Chayet± shows the application of a similar WHFKQLTXH

The tradition of making clay sculptures was continued in the Western Himalayas beginning in the late 10th FHQWXU\ +HOOHU  DQGWKH KLJKO\ VRSKLVWLFDWHG:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQtech-QLTXHHQGVZLWKWKHVFXOSWXUHVRIWKHODWHAlchi temple group (c. 1220 CE) (Luczanits 2004: 17). Compared to the amount of clay sculptures, the production of stone sculptures in Central Tibet was of a subordinate relevance, contrary to metal sculptures made of beaten brass.

Following a stagnation in carrying on the craft of clay sculpturing in LhasaLQWKHVYDULRXV WHFKQLTXHVKDYHDJDLQEHHQEHLQJSUDFWLVHGVLQFHDWOHDVWWKHV)RUWKHDULG+LPDOD\DQ]RQH clay is a well-suited material. On the other hand, for the living clay sculpture tradition in areas with a humid climate, in particular in Bengal, the durability of the sculpture is subordinated to DVSHFWVOLNHWKHULWXDOSURFHVVRIPDNLQJRU¿QDOO\KDYLQJWKHFOD\VFXOSWXUHGLVVROYHGLQDULYHU Regarding this concern, in Bengal the process of dissolution of the sculpture is to be seen as a favoured aspect, and sculptures are often immersed into water at the end of ritual ceremonies. In the Tibetan cultural zone, in contrast, clay sculptures aim for long durability.

\$VDVXSSRUWIRUWKLVUHVHDUFK.|QFKRJ7VHULQJ'NRQPFKRJWVKHULQJ74 gave permission to the DXWKRUWRVWXG\KLVPHWKRGVRIPDNLQJXQ¿UHGclay sculptures (Tib. *ߩjim sku*) at his workshop in Lhasa.,QWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQUHFHQWWHFKQLTXHVRIFOD\VFXOSWXULQJFRQGXFWHGDVSHUIRUPHGLQKLV workshop are documented and juxtaposed to historical activities in Central Tibet and adjoining regions in the west.

### 4.2 'LIIHUHQWWHFKQLTXHVLQclay modelling

First, we distinguish between sculptures made with a mould and those without, both methods IROORZLQJDSUHGH¿QHGLFRQRJUDSK\7KHXVHRIDPRXOGLVPHQWLRQHGIRUclay sculptures along the northern Central Asian silk route. Due to close regional similarities in the design of heads, the hypothesis is proposed that the production of clay sculptures for most monasteries in this area oc-FXUUHGLQMXVWDIHZZRUNVKRSV<DOGL]7KHXVHRIPRXOGVHQDEOHVDTXLFNHUSURGXF-WLRQRIDJLYHQVHULHVRIVFXOSWXUHVDQGWKHIROORZLQJRIDSUHGH¿QHGGHVLJQIDFLOLWDWHVWKHZRUN SURFHVVKRZHYHUUHJLRQDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVPD\DSSHDULQDQattenuated form.

For such historical sculptures, of which no description about their production is available, it is GL൶FXOWWREHFHUWDLQZKHWKHUmoulds were used. Similarities in the shapes of certain parts of the ERG\EHWZHHQGL൵HUHQWVFXOSWXUHVPD\JLYHHYLGHQFHRIWKHXVHRIDPRXOG)RUWKLVUHDVRQIRU

<sup>74</sup> The author is very grateful to K|nchog Tsering for his hospitable support. At the time of the interview on the 4th of December, 2015, he was 48 years old. As a young man he worked as a house and furniture painter and started following his passion for clay modelling about 30 years ago. He went to a Tibetan master, where he learned and worked without payment for about ten years. At that time no school for clay modelling existed in Lhasa. Governmental support of this trade is today given by the acceptance of the production of sculptures for a monas-WHU\ZKLFKLVWRGD\WUHDWHGDVDIRUPRIVHWWLQJRIWD[HV\$FFRUGLQJWR.|QFKRJ7VHULQJDQHZDFWLYLW\LQWUDGLtional Buddhist crafts started in 7LEHWLQWKHODWHV

Fig. 2.12 Mould used for a part of the clay sculpture.

Fig. 2.14 The master himself moulds the face with wooden sticks.

Fig. 2.13 After moulding the front and back side of the sculpture, the two halves are combined as shown. Along the right shoulder of the sculpture, the joint can still be seen.

Fig. 2.15 Back side of a Tara sculpture head. In a separate working step, the crown is attached to the head. A hole RQWRSRIWKHKHDGLVOHIWIRUDODWHU¿OOLQJRIWKHVFXOSWXUH with sacred goods.

#### 82 Chapter II

Tabo clay sculptures, the proposed hypothesis asserts the use of a mould for faces and main features of the body, including hair (Luczanits 2004: 270). In Fondukistan and in the Kashmir area, WKHUHLVQRHYLGHQFHRIWKHXVHRIDPRXOGIRUWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIWKHKHDG9DUPDDQG in the entire Indo-Afghan regions no mould has been found (ibid. 156).

For several sculptures in the Lhasa workshop with a height of up to app. 80 cm, the torso was made with a mould, while all the other parts were modelled by hand, with small decorative details of moist clay applied onto the prepared sculpture. The moulds are prepared from gypsum into two SDUWV)LJDIURQWDQGDEDFNSDUWQRWLQFOXGLQJWKHKHDG9DUPDGHVFULEHVWKH SUHSDUDWLRQRIDPRXOGHLWKHULQVWXFFRRULQXQ¿UHGFOD\LWVHOIDQGWKHVSULQNOLQJRIDVKRQWRWKH inside surface of the mask for easier detachment from the cast.75

The master models the head by hand without a mould, while the torso is prepared with a mould E\KLVDSSUHQWLFH7KHWZRVLGHVDUHSUHSDUHGVHSDUDWHO\¿UVWWKHIURQWIROORZHGE\WKHEDFNVLGH After stripping the front side from the mould, it is put onto the back side, which still remains in the mould, and the two parts are pressed together. The remaining joints are closed carefully after VWULSSLQJWKHPRGHOIURPWKHPRXOGDVDZKROHDQGWKHMRLQWVUHPDLQLQYLVLEOHDIWHU¿QDOWUHDWment (Fig. 2.13). In general, the openings left at the bottom or at the top of sculptures are neces-VDU\VXFKWKDWWKHVFXOSWXUHFDQEH¿OOHGZLWKVDFUHGJRRGVLQDODWHUVWHS8QGHUDSODVWLFVKHHWWKH torso is kept slightly humid so that the head does not have to be attached immediately. The result of this method resembles casted metal sculptures, which are hollow and free standing with a shell of a rather constant thickness.

The head is modelled in two stages. First, the face is treated with extreme care (Fig. 2.14), and thereafter the head is attached to the torso.76 As a last step the back side of the head is modelled. \$VHFRQGPHWKRGLVIUHHKDQGPRGHOOLQJRIWKHZKROHVFXOSWXUHQRWRQO\RIWKHKHDG±ZKLFK LVDSSOLHGIRUELJJHUVFXOSWXUHV±DQGPDVNV±ZKLFKDUHPDGHZLWKRXWDPRXOG7KHXVHRID PRGHOLVFHUWDLQO\DIDFLOLWDWLRQRI.|QFKRJ7VHULQJ¶VZRUNLQSDUWLFXODUIRUWKHSURGXFWLRQRID series of similar sculptures, but has nothing to do with the inability to create a sculpture (as is also HPSKDVLVHGE\9DUPD9DUPDLELGPHQWLRQVWKDWLWLVWKHFKRLFHRIWKHVFXOSWRU to use a mould or to model by hand. In the Lhasa workshop, only additional elements like horns RUFURZQVDUHDWWDFKHGDVD¿QDOVWHS)LJ3DUWLFXODUO\WKLVKDVEHHQGHVFULEHGIRUDFURZQ made for clay sculptures in 7DERZKLFKZDVORRVHO\D൶[HGWRWKHKHDG/XF]DQLWV

\$QRWKHUGL൵HUHQWLDWLRQLQÀXHQFLQJWKHPHWKRGRISURGXFWLRQLVLIWKHFOD\VFXOSWXUHLVIUHHVWDQG-LQJZLWKRXWDQ\IXUWKHUVXSSRUW±DVLQWKHFDVHRI%XGGKLVWVFXOSWXUHVZKLFKDUHRIWHQSODFHGRQ DORWXVEDVH±RULIWKHVFXOSWXUHQHHGVDZRRGHQVXEFRQVWUXFWLRQGXHWRLWVSUHGH¿QHGLFRQRJUDSK-LFGHVLJQ7KLVGL൵HUHQWLDWLRQLVEDVLFIRUDPHWKRGRIclay modelling and done using a wooden subconstruction. The clay sculpture of a <DPƗQWDNDDVDVWDQGLQJ¿JXUHZLWKDKHLJKWRIDSS m is an example exhibited in the Lhasa workshop. Also early West Tibetan examples such as the ones from the main temple in Tabo belong to this category (Fig. 2.16).

<sup>75</sup> For this kind of clay modelling, the term "cast" is not precise, since the clay is pressed into the mould in a viscous FRQVLVWHQF\DQGQRWFDVWZLWKÀXLGFRQVLVWHQF\

<sup>76</sup> Casts are set in place by pressure after applying a still slightly moistened VOXUU\WRWKHVSOLFH9DUPD

Fig. 2.16 The vertical *YDۨĞDGD۬ڲD* ( inside the sculpture) is connected with the two horizontal *XSDĞnjOD*s, which are ¿[HGLQWKHZDOO

Each of these clay sculptures has one vertical wooden brace, the *sogshing* (Tib. *srog shing*, Skt. *YDۨĞDGD۬ڲD*ZKLFKUHIHUVWRDWUHHRIOLIHDVGHVFULEHGE\.|QFKRJ7VHULQJ7KLVFRQQRWDWLRQ LVFULWLFDOO\UHMHFWHGE\9DUPD+HDUJXHVWKDWWKH*YDۨĞDGD۬ڲD*(Skt.) is indeed also known as *%UDKPDGD۬ڲD*but refers to *Brahman* as anything basic and not to a *Supreme God* or a *Universal Soul*.

Some sculptures additionally have a so-called *"rüshing"* (Tib. *rus shing*) as a wooden brace, possibly along the neck and elongating laterally with another vertical wooden brace on each side. *Rüshing* in its meaning as "tree of bones" refers to a kind of skeleton made of wooden sticks used to brace the statue. It is organised around the central vertical *sogshing*, and GL൵HUHQW*GD۬ڲD*s and *ĞnjOD*V6NWUHSUHVHQWGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIERQHV<sup>77</sup>

<sup>77</sup> Besides the use of a wooden support for bigger sculptures, the use of a core prepared of stone is known in the area of the Central Asian VLONURXWH<DOGL]\$OVRWKHXVHRILURQURGVLVNQRZQIRU1HSDOHVHclay sculptures in the 12th/13th century (Luczanits 2004: 12, 305, fn. 36). Another WHFKQLTXHLVWKHXVHRIstraw added to a core of wood, for instance in %HQJDO\$FFRUGLQJWR9DUPD*ĞnjOD*V±DOVRFDOOHG*"GD۬ڲD*s*"*±GH¿QHSDUWVRI the armature. In addition to the *YDۨĞDGD۬ڲD*as the vertebral column, several other *GD۬ڲD*s are known, including *YDN܈RGD۬ڲD*, the stick across the chest, the *NDܒLGD۬ڲD*, the stick across the hips, or the *XSDĞnjOD* as a supporting part describing essential elements of the wooden armature.

#### 84 Chapter II

)LJ0HWKRGRIPDNLQJWKHWRUVRDQGKHDGRIDOLIHVL]HGFOD\VFXOSWXUH :RRGHQVXEFRQVWUXFWLRQ )L[LQJ UROOVZLWKPDQWUDVE\ZUDSSLQJWH[WLOHVDURXQGWKHVXEFRQVWUXFWLRQ 7ZLJVRI*penma*DUH¿[HGZLWKDURSHRQWRWKH OD\HURIPDQWUDUROOV 7KH*penma* is covered with clay.

'L൵HUHQWPDWHULDOVZHUHDSSOLHGWRFOD\VFXOSWXUHVVXFKDVVWULSVRIKLGHDQGYHJHWDEOH¿EUHFRUGV IRUMRLQLQJSDUWVRIWKHDUPDWXUHDVNQRZQIURP:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQVFXOSWXUHV9HJHWDEOH¿EUH cords were furthermore wrapped around wooden parts as support for the clay (Luczanits 2004: 266, 267). In the ancient texts, ropes applied in two layers play an essential role in a functional and symbolic context. In the preparation of Bengal clay sculptures, ropes are replaced by a layer of straw and, particularly in the Lhasa ZRUNVKRSYHJHWDEOH¿EUHVRIWKH*somaradza* (Tib. *so ma ra dza*) are used. The length of this grass extends up to app. 4 m to 5 m. The preparation of a rope of grass (Tib. *dras thag*)78 is similar to what could be found in Basgo in Ladakh.7KLVVSHFL¿F grass from Ladakh is locally known as *busho* /DGVHH&KDSWHU,,,7KHUHLWLVWZLVWHGLQWRD rope, which is also used to be wrapped around the pillars in the Maitreya Lhakhang in Basgo as a base for the application of plaster. This architectural use is close to the method described for clay sculptures. In Central Tibet in earlier days, the so-called *"tsadrema"* (Tib. *rtsa bre ma*) was brought from the mountains to be used in the construction of clay sculptures.

In the Lhasa workshop, a particular WHFKQLTXH RI XVLQJgrass is known for larger statues (Fig. 2.17): Rolls with mantras (Tib. *gzungs*, Skt. *GKƗUD۬Ư*) are wrapped around the central pillar, the *sogshing*, together with yellow textiles, whereon they are pressed with *penma* (Tib. *spen ma*)

<sup>78</sup> In earlier days a *dratag* (Tib. *dras thags*) was also made of animal hair.

 <sup>,</sup>Q6RXWK,QGLDQWH[WVWUHDWHGE\9DUPDWKHXVHRIFRFRQXW¿EUHVLVPHQWLRQHGDQGDSRVVLEOHV\PEROLF meaning of the ropes used is described with *QƗڲ*)Skt.), arteries or veins. The three most important ropes are *VX܈XPQƗ*, *LڲƗ* and *SL۪JDOƗ* (ibid. 80). They are applied tight together at the point of the navel and run vertically in parallel to the armature before being tied horizontally (ibid.). There, after clay is applied onto the ropes and a second layer of ropes is fastened to the armature and again covered with clay, a following step includes repeating this process a third time (ibid. 86).

twigs80E\¿[LQJWKHPZLWKDURSHRI*somaradza* grass. In-between and upon this layer made of rope, clay is applied. This method, i.e. a wooden skeleton on which ropes and clay are added, resembles the traditional method as described for Western Himalayan and Kashmir sculptures. )RUWKLVPHWKRG VDFUHGWH[WV DUH DGGLWLRQDOO\PRXQWHGLQWKH VFXOSWXUH¶V FHQWUH7KH ZRRGHQ subconstruction is wrapped with long ribbons often made of paper and being printed with sacred texts. Hollow free-standing clay sculptures without any support (as mentioned above) or sculp-WXUHVWKDWDUHFDVWRUZURXJKWRIPHWDODUH¿OOHGZLWKVDFUHGVFULSWXUHVDQGSUHFLRXVJRRGV

In Central 7LEHWZH¿QGDQRWKHUPHWKRGIRUWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIclay sculptures. In this case a modelled block of clay is used as a stay-in-place formwork model, around which the actual sculpture is designed. This method is appropriate for bigger constructions, the weight of which would be-FRPHWRRKHDY\WRFDUU\6XFKVFXOSWXUHVDUHUHODWLYHO\OLJKWZHLJKWDQGDFFRUGLQJWR.|QFKRJ Tsering, these kinds of sculptures were prepared for the Jokhang in Lhasa in earlier days. For this kind of construction, a scarf was twisted about seven times around the central model of clay. This base construction is covered with a mixture of glue (Skt. *Dܒ܈DEDQGKD*, "binding medium") produced from yak skin (*pin yak kowa*7LE*spin g.yag ko ba*DQGZKHDWÀRZHU\$IWHUGU\LQJIRU DSSUR[LPDWHO\RQHZHHNKDUGQHVVLVWHVWHGE\NQRFNLQJRQWKHVFXOSWXUHZLWKRQH¶V¿QJHUV\$ SDUWLFXODUEULJKWVRXQGVLJQDOVKDYLQJUHDFKHGWKHUHTXLUHGKDUGQHVV7KHUHDIWHUWKHQHZO\SURduced subconstruction for the sculpture is knocked until the clay model inside breaks and drops out.81 A light construction remains, on which the actual sculpture is again modelled without the use of clay. The substances used are a mixture of *shukpa* powder and *wanglag* (Tib. *dbang lag*, "particular herbs"), which are together with water put into a pot for ten minutes. The resulting mixture is a kind of a glue that is the base material for modelling the statue. Due to the use of herbs, such statues are also called *"mendam"* (Tib. *VPDQ ҲGDP*, "FOD\RIKHUEV´DQGWKH¿QDO result is a sculpture made of JOXHDQGKHUEV\$W¿UVWJODQFHWKLVWHFKQLTXHKDVIURPWKHSRLQWRI SURFHVVLQJ±DSDUWIURPLWVFHQWUDOFOD\EORFNZKLFKLVLQD¿UVWVWHSXVHGDVIRUPZRUN±QRWKLQJ in common with a clay sculpture as described before. Upon further observation, this method, as it is described in the Lhasa workshop, seems to follow a long lasting tradition of preparing a clay sculpture, possibly dating back to early Central Tibetan imperial temple foundations. For the construction of the main statue in Samye in the Washe (see *Sba bzhed*±DVPHQWLRQHGLQ&KD\HW WKLVPHWKRGLVGHVFULEHG)RUWKLVWHFKQLTXHgrass or straw is covered with a textile RIFRWWRQZKLFKLVWKHQKHOGLQSODFHE\ÀXLGFOD\DQGFRYHUHGZLWKVHYHQOD\HUVRI\HOORZ82 clay. 8SRQ ¿QLVKLQJWKH VFXOSWXUHWKH VXUIDFH DSSHDUV VKLQ\ DQG VWRQHOLNHZKLFKLPSOLHVWKDWWKH method of surface treatment potentially involves the use of a particular burnishing method.

<sup>80</sup> The use of twigs is also reported for a Western Himalayan sculpture from Gumrang in Lahaul. In this case, the twigs are fastened around the central shaft (Luczanits 2004: 266).

<sup>81</sup> \$GHVFULSWLRQJLYHQE\&KD\HWIRUDUHFHQWSURGXFWLRQRIDFOD\mask is similar. The core of clay is used as a kind of mould, on which a layer of a mixture of JOXHDQGÀRXULVDSSOLHGDQGXSRQZKLFKDWH[WLOHLV modelled. This layer is repeated several times and after drying, the mask is detached from the core with a spatula and prepared with yak skin JOXHDQGFKDONSRZGHUEHIRUHEHLQJSDLQWHGDQGODFTXHUHG

<sup>82</sup> The described golden colour may actually refer to a yellow colour, possibly related to the content of particular ferric oxides but perhaps also referring to any additives.

### 4.3 Quality of the clay

Regarding the base material in the Lhasa workshop, the clay originates from the village of Dreb83 (Tib. Sgreb grong tsho), a village in Phenpo, and for the purpose of clay modelling it is said to be the best material available.84,WVTXDOLW\GL൵HUVIURPWKDWRID*thigsa* (Tib. *thigs sa*), which is used for roofs, in that the former is smoother. Similar, it is used for pottery85EXWLWLVVWLOO¿QHUWKDQ commonly used pottery clay, and it does not show any content of sand.86 Also in Lhundrub (Tib. Lhun grub) in Phenpo, the same type of clay is used and brought to Lhokha. The uppermost layer ZDVQRWDSSOLHGDVDQDGGLWLRQDO¿QHVOXUU\RUPL[HGZLWK¿QH¿EUHVDVGHVFULEHG IRU:HVWHUQ Tibetan sculptures (Luczanits 2004: 268). In the Lhasa workshop, the clay was applied as a single DQGUDWKHU¿QHOD\HUZKLFKLVFRQWUDU\WRWKHGHVFULSWLRQJLYHQIRUTabo sculptures, wherein at OHDVWWZROD\HUVRIH[WUHPHO\¿QHFOD\DUHPHQWLRQHG LELG\$FFRUGLQJWRDUFKDHRORJLFDO HYLGHQFH9DUPD PHQWLRQV GL൶FXOW\LQ FRPSUHKHQGLQJWKH QXPEHU RI FOD\OD\HUV that are used, and following his examination of heads from Tarimia, he hypothesises that the core was made of one piece, while the body was made in several layers. A clay mineralogical method RIH[DPLQDWLRQDVGHVFULEHGLQ&KDSWHU,,,JLYHVHYLGHQFHDERXWWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHPDWHULDOVDQG layers used. In the Lhasa workshop, various methods are practiced to avoid cracks, particularly for pieces up to about two metres in size. For larger pieces, reinforcement may be neglected. In WKLVFDVHFUDFNVDUH¿OOHGLQDVHPLGU\RUGU\VWDWHZLWKIUHVKPDWHULDO7KHIROORZLQJPL[WXUHV are used in the Lhasa workshop:


The ingredients are mixed with the clay as a kind of sheeting. This mixture has to be beaten intensely for a long period. For the sculptures of Tabo, Nako and the Alchi Sumtseg, a content RIWKLQYHJHWDEOH¿EUHVLVUHSRUWHGZKLOHIRUWKHVFXOSWXUHVRIGumrang and the Alchi 0DxMXĞUƯ Lhakhang, the content of hair is described (Luczanits 2004: 268). For the northern silk route in Central Asia, the use of a mixture of clay with chopped straw (Ger. *Häcksel*DQGDQLPDO¿EUHVLV PHQWLRQHG<DOGL]VLPLODUWRWKHXVHRIFKRSSHGstraw for Tabo sculptures (Luczanits 2004: 268).

<sup>83</sup> The village of Dreb has not yet been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

<sup>84</sup> \$FFRUGLQJWRWKHDQFLHQWWH[WVWUHDWHGE\9DUPDWKUHHGL൵HUHQWNLQGVFDQEHGLVWLQJXLVKHGLHDQDULG clay (Skt. *MƗ۪JDOƗ*), which is strong and too hard to dig, a damp clay (Skt. *DQnjSD*), which is easy to dig and contains black sand, and a mixture of both (Skt. *PLĞUƗ*VKRZLQJERWKTXDOLWLHVDQGFRQWDLQLQJDVPDOODPRXQWRIsand or stickiness. Following ancient texts, the three types of clay should be prepared each in twelve steps, which sounds UDWKHUDPELWLRXVDQGTXHVWLRQDEOHIURPDSUDFWLFDOSRLQWRIYLHZ

<sup>85</sup> In general, SRWWHU\FOD\VHHPVUDWKHUFORVHWRWKHTXDOLW\RIFOD\QHHGHGIRUclay modelling. For the extremities of sculptures made in Bengal, the clay is described as sticky, without sand or small stones, and ready to model the ZKROHSLHFHLQRQHVWHS9DUPD

<sup>86</sup> For sculptures from 7DERWKHXVHRISXUL¿HGFOD\DQGWKHDGGLWLRQRIsand are mentioned, and for sculptures from Tabo and Gumrang, also the addition of chopped straw is described (Luczanits 2004: 268). Contrarily, the clay used in the workshop of Lhasa was described without the addition of sand, VWUDZRUIXUWKHUSXUL¿FDWLRQ7KLVPD\ VLPSO\KDYHWRGRZLWKGL൵HUHQWORFDOUDZPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHVEXWGRHVQRWHQDEOHDQ\TXDOLWDWLYHFRPSDULVRQ

At the Lhasa workshop VWUDZ ZDV QRW DGGHG LQVWHDG MXVW WKH GHVFULEHG *pödam*, *shagdam* or *tsadam.* In this workshop, within one sculpture the use of several of these ingredients can be ap-SOLHGIRUGL൵HUHQWSDUWV)RUWKHTara sculpture87ZLWKDKHLJKWRIDSSP±ZKLFKZDVDWWKH WLPHRIWKHDXWKRUތVYLVLWVWDQGLQJLQWKHZRUNVKRSDQGZKRVHSURGXFWLRQWRRNDERXWWZRZHHNV ±WKHWRUVRZDVPDGHZLWK*tsadam*, delicate parts like the face were made with *shagdam,* and delicate decorative parts such as the extension of hair over the shoulders were created with *pödam.* A long history of incense powder made of *shukpa* is said to exist at Nyemo.88

### 4.4 Surface of the sculpture

At the Lhasa workshop, in a semi-dry state the surface is pressed and smoothed with a wooden stick (see Fig. 2.15). A preferred stick is made of *depam* (Tib. *sde pam*), a hard wood. Remaining cracks and unevenness are smoothed but not burnished. After smoothing, a sublayer for the fol-ORZLQJOD\HURISDLQW±SDUWLFXODUO\ZKHQDGGLQJJROGFRORXUV±LVDSSOLHGZLWKDEUXVK7KLV¿QH OD\HULVDPL[WXUHRIDVSHFL¿FFOD\FDOOHG*"serdam ngenpa"* (Tib. *gser ldam ngan pa*) with yak skin glue. *Serdam ngenpa* relates to the mode of painting and also the name of a colour. For the JOXHXVHGWRGD\ZHFDQGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQDPRGHUQDUWL¿FLDODQGWKHWUDGLWLRQDOYHUVLRQPDGH of yak skin. For Western Himalayan sculptures, in particular from Tabo and Gumrang, the application of a white priming coat was common (Luczanits 2004: 275). For Gumrang, the use of a considerably thick limestone paste is described (ibid.). This paste is also mentioned as *ĞDUNDUƗ* or *ĞDUNDUƗNDOND* (Skt.) in early texts treated by Varma, and translated as limestone paste of which it is not clear if the OLPHVWRQHZDVEXUQW9DUPD9DUPDK\SRWKHVLVHVWKDWXQEXUQW limestone was used, and he gives a translation of *ĞDUNDUƗNDOND*DV³D¿QHUYDULHW\RIFOD\´LELG ZKLFKZRXOGDOVRFRUUHODWHZLWKLWVXVHLQWKH/KDVDworkshop.

\$FFRUGLQJWR9DUPDWZRGL൵HUHQWPHWKRGVLQDSSO\LQJWKH¿QDOOD\HUVIRUFRDWLQJDUH explained either as one single layer on the core with the second layer used for burnLVKLQJRUDV two applied layers with one layer as the base for the application of a slurry (also known as "slip" or "thin clay wash"LELG)RUWKHBengal sculptures, after modelling the head, just a thin layer of silt from the Ganges is added (ibid. 210). According to the method, which was shown in the Lhasa ZRUNVKRSQRDGGLWLRQDO¿QDOOD\HUIRUburnishing was applied. The core material already KDGWKH¿QHQHVVQHHGHGIRUWKHXSSHUPRVWOD\HU7KLVPHWKRGFRUUHODWHVZLWKDPHWKRGXVHGIRU traditional Tibetan wall plasters. Examinations of Tibetan wall plasters at Nyarma show that the upper plaster layer after desludging the base material is capable of being burnished (Feiglstorfer ൵). In the case of the Lhasa workshop, the upper surface remained unburnished. The conducted smoothing left a homogenous and levelled but not shiny surface.

<sup>87</sup> To carry the Tara sculpture, at least two strong men are needed, for the <DPƗQWDNDVFXOSWXUHDWOHDVWWKUHH

<sup>88</sup> A traditional method of producing the powder is with a water wheel. By activating the rotation of a wooden stick, a continuous beating on the piece of *shukpa* takes place. Due to the rubbing of the *shukpa* along the hard ground, the wood is powdered.

For the application of *ĞDUNDUƗNDOND* (Skt.)*,* two layers having thickness of two to three *yava*s are used. With the second, holes or cracks should be avoided. After one to two months, another three layers should be applied until WKHSUHVFULEHGPHDVXUHPHQWVDUHREWDLQHG9DUPD7KHVHOD\HUVDUHWKHODVWSRVVLELOLWLHVIRUDGMXVWPHQWV to any measures or proportions to be made.

### 4.5 Discussion

7KHVWXG\RI6DQVNULWOLWHUDWXUHFRQGXFWHGE\9DUPDJLYHVUDWKHUGHWDLOHGLQIRUPDWLRQRQ Indian clay sculptures. His comparative analysis by including ancient Indian texts of early examples of clay sculptures from Indo-Afghan regions, and Jammu and Kashmir, shows similarities with traditions in processing the clay and in making clay sculptures over the Tibetan cultural zone in a number of aspects. A comparison with Western Himalayan, Bengal and Central Tibetan methods of making clay sculptures provides insight into historical working processes. The connotation of the single parts of the clay sculpture with parts of the human body as described in Indian litera-WXUHVWDQGVLQDVSHFL¿FUHOLJLRXVFRQWH[W&RPSDULVRQZLWKSUHVHQWGD\PHWKRGVRIPDNLQJFOD\ sculptures in Lhasa SURYLGHVHYLGHQFHRIVWLOOUHPDLQLQJWUDGLWLRQDONQRZOHGJH6LQFHWHFKQLTXHV used for modelling are related to a deep understanding of properties of the base material, clay sculpturing can be considered a highly developed skill. Various aspects seem to be of relevance also for studying traditions in Himalayan earth architecture.

(DUO\¿QGLQJVRIclay sculptures from the 6th century in the Kashmir / Fondukistan region, from the 8th century in Central Tibet, and the 10th and following centuries in the Western Himalayas show the long tradition of this craft. In Central Tibet, a tradition of clay sculpture modelling re-PDLQVWRGD\DQGUHÀHFWVKLVWRULFDOPHWKRGVWKURXJKWKHXVHRImoulds or modelling in thick layers by hand or preparation of thin-skinned hollow sculptures. A continuous transfer of knowledge from generation to generation and master to scholar shows a continuity of traditions such as particular modelling methods. This continuity in the transfer of related traditions is seen in the still existent knowledge in a Lhasa workshop being related to knowledge gained from the renovation of historical clay sculptures in the Jokhang in Lhasa.

The single methods can be ascribed as prevalent to particular regions between Fondukistan in the west and Central Tibet in the east. Using a mould or modelling in thick layers is found as a commonly used method in several regions (Western Himalayas, Kashmir, Bengal or Central Tibet), while the WHFKQLTXHRISURFHVVLQJWKLQOD\HUVDURXQGDQDUPDWXUHDQGPDNLQJKROORZVKHOOVVHHPV to be concentrated in Central 7LEHW2QWKHRWKHUKDQGZHFDQGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQGL൵HUHQWORFDO WHFKQLFDOYDULDWLRQVEDVHGRQYDU\LQJORFDOUDZPDWHULDOFRQGLWLRQVVXFKDVWKHXVHRIGL൵HUHQW NLQGVRIPDWHULDOVIRUPDNLQJWKHVXEFRQVWUXFWLRQWKH¿ULQJRIVFXOSWXUHVRUWKHXVHRIGL൵HUHQW ¿EUHVWRSUHSDUHVWDELOLVLQJURSHV

For vernacular architecture, an important fact seems to be that there is not just one solution for solving a technical problem, but rather there are local solutions dependent on local resources. Such problems concern a) the prevention and repair of cracks, b) the preparation of a proper adhesion of clay on wood, c) the collection and preparation of clay in general, or d) the treatment of surfaces.

a) Prevention of cracks: At the Lhasa workshop, three clay mixtures are described by using *shukpa*SRZGHUSDSHUDQG¿EUHV,QDKLVWRULFDOFRQWH[WWKHXVHRIstraw or animal and vegetable ¿EUHVLVDOVRVWDWHG,QRUGHUWRUHSDLUFUDFNVLQWKH/KDVDworkshop, hair cracks are closed with D¿QHslurry of clay and compressed with a wooden stick.


6HYHUDORIWKHWHFKQLTXHVZKLFKWHDFKXVDERXWWKHKLVWRULFDOXVHRIFOD\IRUVFXOSWXUHVFDQEH FRPSDUHGZLWKUHFHQWDSSOLFDWLRQDWUDGLWLRQEHLQJEDVHGRQWKH¿QHEDODQFLQJRIUDZPDWHULDO DQGDSSOLHGWHFKQLTXHV,QQHHGRIIXUWKHUH[DPLQDWLRQVDUHSRVVLELOLWLHVIRUSUHVHQWGD\XVHRI VXFKWHFKQLTXHVLQWKHFUHDWLRQRIHDUWKFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGFRQVHUYDWLRQ

### III. EARTH BUILDING TRADITIONS IN BASGO AND LIKIR / LADAKH

### ,ඇඍඋඈൽඎർඍංඈඇ

:LWKLQWKH¿HOGRIPDWHULDOFXOWXUHWKHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHVE\H[DPLQDWLRQRIDQ REMHFWތVVLQJOHFRPSRQHQWVLVDQHVVHQWLDODVSHFWIRUSURYLQJWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHUDZPDWHULDOYHULfying places of origin, and understanding methods of processing. In the Himalayas, clay is still an LPSRUWDQWEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO7KHPDWHULDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIFOD\DQGSURFHVVLQJ WHFKQLTXHVIROORZWUDGLWLRQDODQGORFDOO\GH¿QHGSDWWHUQV/RFDONQRZOHGJHRQSDUWLFXODUSURSHUties of clay, based on local experience, overlaps with regional knowledge with particular local adaptations. Today, general knowledge on locally available types of clay and processing practises is decreasing, and it is primarily various elders, who keep such information.

In researching this topic for the last 20 years, the author has collected and documented samples of clay from various sites in the Himalayas. These samples are the carriers of information on particu-ODUPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHVUHODWHGWRWKHXVHRIVSHFL¿FPDWHULDOIRUGL൵HUHQWFRQVWUXFWLYHSXUSRVHV7KH VDPSOHVDUHHLWKHUUDZPDWHULDOFROOHFWHGIURPORFDOO\NQRZQSLWVNQRZQIRUWKHLUXVHVIRUVSHFL¿F building purpose or originate from damaged parts of certain building components. According to WKHLUPDWHULDO SURSHUWLHVWKH\ZHUHDQDO\VHGDQGFRPSDUHG)RUFRPSDULVRQPDWHULDOVSHFL¿F properties, such as colour, grain size distribution, grain shape, hardness, organic additives and mineral properties were analysed and juxtaposed. Individual properties are examined in relation to their constructive uses. In the present study, locally used materials for adobe EULFNVÀDWHDUWK roof constructions, rammed earth ÀRRUVFOD\plaster, pottery and also the *thab* (Tibetan stove) are analysed. Some of the samples, in particular those of plasters and bricks, are related to histori-FDOVLWHVRWKHUVDUHUHODWHGWRUHFHQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGFUDIWV7UDFHDEOHPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHVZHUH DQDO\VHG EDVHG RQDQDO\WLF SDUDPHWHUV ±FRQVWUXFWLYHO\DQGPDWHULDORULHQWDWHG)RUWKH VLQJOH WHFKQLTXHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHODERUDWRU\WHVWVDUHMX[WDSRVHGDQGDQDO\VHGDQGDGditional examinations of selected samples were conducted. The analysis follows a categorisation VSHFL¿FDOO\JLYHQE\WKHVLQJOHWHFKQLTXHVWKHSODFHRIPDWHULDORULJLQDQGWKHORFDOQDPHVRI the raw material.

### 5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV

5HJDUGLQJWKHZLGH¿HOGRIWKLVVWXG\WKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVDUHSRVHGZLWKDSULPDU\ focus on material research:


### 1.2 Origin of the samples

Samples originate from clay pits or particular parts of buildings, such as the roof, interior and exterior plaster, adobe bricks or UDPPHGHDUWKZDOOV0DQ\RIWKHFOD\SLWVDUHGL൶FXOWWR¿QG without local help, as they are often integrated into the surrounding natural environment such as DJULFXOWXUDOO\XWLOL]HG¿HOGV7KHFKRLFHRISDUWLFXODUVDPSOHVLVWRDFHUWDLQH[WHQWGHSHQGHQWRQ factors such as proper information from the local population, accessibility of the pit or object, and, if needed, particular local permission. Samples of loose earthen debris lying on the ground at various spots along building structures were collected without digging or applying any invasive impact on the structures.

As far as the collected type of samples has a particular local designation, all names were documented, same as the recording of the particular use and processing of each material. The sampling SRLQWVZHUHGRFXPHQWHGRQDPDSDQGE\SKRWRJUDSKV7KHFROOHFWHGVDPSOHVJLYHDXQLTXHRXWline of clay as material used for building and crafts. The aim of such a variety is to keep a wide range of comparable samples with high diversity.

For the next chapter on building traditions in Basgo and Likir in Ladakh, samples were collected in these two villages, which are located about 10 km from each other along the Leh-Kargil +LJKZD\1+'0DSDWDQDOWLWXGHRIDSSPDQGDERYH2YHUWKHFRXUVHRI¿HOG research, Basgo, Likir and the surrounding settlements stood out due to their wide range of different locally available and still used types of clay and living clay traditions. For several of the locally known types of clay, local names were available, which could be linked to a particular use RUPHDQLQJZLWKLQWKH¿HOGRIEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV

In %DVJRVHYHUDOWHPSOHVRIGL൵HUHQWDJHVZHUHEXLOWRQWRSDQGDORQJWKHIRRWRIWKHWHPSOHKLOO and also in the close vicinity to %DVJR)RUEXLOGLQJSXUSRVHVWKHORFDOWUDGLWLRQGL൵HUHQWLDWHV between clay used for roof constructions, interior and exterior plaster, and the plaster applied to pillars and bricks. Particular mixtures are known for particular building purposes, and the related raw material was collected for examination. For construction of a Tibetan clay stove (Tib. *thab sa*, which is a proper clay for building a clay stove), local knowledge still exists, and related samples RIGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIFOD\ZHUHFROOHFWHGLikir is well known as a village with a pottery tradition, and is further known as a source for not only SRWWHU\FOD\EXWIRUJRRGTXDOLW\FOD\IRUEXLOGLQJ SXUSRVHV7KLVIXQFWLRQDOLQWHUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHSURSHUWLHVRIFOD\IRUGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIXVHV within one village, and even more so between these two villages, is the aim of this observation.

Several of the samples were collected at building structures at Basgo, as shown in Map 3.2. According to Table 1, the samples of the following structures will be examined:

Basgo: Maitreya Lhakhang, /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJ /KDNKDQJ µFORVH WR WKH URDG¶ Leh-Kargil Highway NH 1D), building raw material, clay stove (Tib. *thab*).

Basgo / Likir: Stove and pottery clay. Likir: Adobe brick, clay pit and sand.

Map 3.1 Basgo and Likir. Origin of the samples. GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on: Google Earth. Image © 2016 TerraMetrics.

Map 3.2 Building structures at Basgo related to the examined samples. GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on: Google Earth. Image © 2016 TerraMetrics.

Table 3.1 List of the samples.


#### **%DVJR±0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ**


#### **%DVJR±/RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ**


#### **%DVJR±/KDNKDQJFORVHWRURDG+LJKZD\1+'**


#### **%DVJR±EXLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDO**


#### **%DVJR±FOD\VWRYH***thab*


#### **%DVJR/LNLU±VWRYHDQGSRWWHU\FOD\**


### 11763 India Ladakh Likir adobe bricks --- ,QGLD /DGDNK /LNLU FOD\SLW **/LNLU±DGREHEULFNDQGFOD\SLW**

#### **/LNLU±VDQG**


### 1.3 Structure of this chapter

Part 1: Mineralogical analysis of the clay samples.

Part 2: Additional examinations on selected samples.

Part 3: Discussion.

Grain size classes and results of bulk and clay mineral analysis are given in Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 at the end of Part 2 of this chapter. Further tables, graphics and related documents are attached in the Appendix of Chapter III.

### 5ൾඌൾൺඋർඁආൾඍඁඈൽ

### 2.1 Documentation

During the expeditions the samples were numbered, catalogued and described in detail. Before examining the samples in the laboratory of the IAG / BOKU (Institute of Applied Geology / University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna), they were numbered once more. The label of the samples in this text is related to this numbering at the laboratory, and for further LGHQWL¿FDWLRQLQWKHWH[WWKHVDPSOHVDUHOLVWHGLQDWDEOH7DEOH

The following parameters are part of the research on site:

	- ± Architectural survey
	- ± Description of the natural environment
	- ± 'HVFULSWLRQRIWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGWKHPDWHULDOVތSURFHVVLQJ
	- ± Plans (ground plans, sections, elevations)
	- ± Drawings of the technical properties and details
	- ± Photographs
	- ± GPS position of the single objects
	- ± Interviews and local reports on the use and processing of building materials

### 96 Chapter III

	- ± Detailed observation of the single constructions and crafts
	- ± Comparative constructive traditions
	- ± Technical properties
	- ± Local particularities
	- ± Impact of the natural environment on the use of these constructions
	- ± Possible relation between the use of a particular clay and the type of construction

### 2.2 Laboratory methods

### 2.2.1 Grain size analysis (GSA)

Particle size analysis was carried out as a combination of wet VLHYLQJIUDFWLRQV!ȝPDORQJ ZLWK VHGLPHQWDWLRQDQDO\VLVZLWK0LFURPHULWLFV6HGLJUDSK ,,, IUDFWLRQVȝP J RIDLU dried clay was treated for dispersion and destruction of organic substances over several days with app. 200 ml of 10% hydrogen peroxide. After completion of the reaction, excess oxygen was removed by boiling in a water bath. After sonication, the sample was sieved. Residues of sieving !ȝP!ȝP!ȝP!ȝPDQG!ȝPZHUHGULHGDQGZHLJKHG7KHIUDFWLRQ ȝPLVXVHGIRUWKHVHGLPHQWDWLRQDQDO\VLVLQWKHVHGLJUDSKDIWHUVRQLFDWLRQ5HVXOWVIURPsieving and sedigraph are combined.

### 2.2.2 Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVDUHGHWHUPLQHGDFFRUGLQJWR7XFNHUDFFRUGLQJWRWKHIROORZLQJFRGH


### 2.2.3 Bulk mineral analysis (BMA) by XRD

Evaluation of an average amount of certain minerals is conducted according to peak intensity in relation to the general peak intensity. The intensities in the BMA tables are given with the following categorisation. Attention is also paid to amounts that deviate from the average. This semi-TXDQWLWDWLYHHYDOXDWLRQLVJLYHQLQSURSRUWLRQDOUHODWLRQRIWKHVDPSOHVWRHDFKRWKHU6LQFHcalcite and gypsum can be added for strengthening constructive features of particular clay mixtures, WKHLUDPRXQWLVJLYHQTXDQWLWDWLYHO\ZLWKWKHIROORZLQJV\PEROV WUDFHV
 VPDOODPRXQW PHGLXPDPRXQWDQG

 KLJKDPRXQW To determine the bulk mineral content, the samples ZHUHGULHGDW&DQGJURXQGWRDÀRXUOLNHFRQVLVWHQF\ȝPLQDYLEUDWRU\GLVFPLOO7KH JURXQG SRZGHU ZDV SUHSDUHG LQ D ދEDFNORDGތ SURFHGXUH 8QWLO X-ray analysis was conducted using a Philips ;UD\GL൵UDFWRPHWHU3:ZLWKDGLYHUJHQFHVOLW&X.ĮUD\VNY P\$WRșVWHSSHUVHFRQGVWHSVL]Hș7KHVHPLTXDQWLWDWLYHGHWHUPLQDWLRQ

The description of laboratory methods is based on the methods given by Karin Wriesnig (2013: 57, 58 and 60).

RIPLQHUDOFRQWHQWVZDVFRQGXFWHGDFFRUGLQJWR6FKXOW])RUVDPSOHVDQDO\VHGDIWHU D3DQDO\WLFDO;3HUW3UR0S'GL൵UDFWRPHWHUZLWKDXWRPDWLFGLYHUJHQWVOLW&X/))WXEHN9 P\$ DQG DQ;ތ&HOHUDWRU GHWHFWRUZDV XVHG7KHPHDVXULQJWLPHZDV VZLWK D VWHS VL]H RIș8VLQJDScheibler aparatus, the content of carbonate was measured according to Ö-Norm L 1084 by destroying the carbonates with 15% HCl and determining the volume of the CO2 in consideration of air pressure and temperature. The inorganic content of carbon was calculated by multiplying the content of carbonate by 0.12.

### 2.2.4 Clay mineral analysis (CMA)

7KH VDPSOH SUHSDUDWLRQ ZDV FDUULHG RXW DFFRUGLQJWR:KLWWLJ  DQG7ULEXWK 7KH destruction of organic substances was the same as with the GSA. The preparation of the sample ZDVFRQGXFWHGLQSDUDOOHOWRWKH\*6\$7KHFOD\IUDFWLRQZDVDUHVXOWRIFHQWULIXJDWLQJ¿YHPLQ-XWHVDWUSPIURPWKHȝPIUDFWLRQ7KHFRPSOH[RIVRUSWLRQRIWKHFOD\IUDFWLRQZDV exchanged by shaking with 4 N MgCl2- or 4 N KCl solutions, respectively. An X-ray analysis was conducted using a Philips ;UD\GL൵UDFWRPHWHU3:XQWLODQGZLWKD3DQDO\WLFDO;3HUW 3UR0S'GL൵UDFWRPHWHUDIWHUDVGHVFULEHGEHIRUH(DFKSRURXVFHUDPLFSODWHFDUULHV PJRIFOD\.LQWHU'LDPRQG7KHVHWH[WXUHVSHFLPHQVZHUHGULHGRYHUQLJKWLQDGHVVLFDtor above a saturated NH4 NO3 -solution before being X-rayed. Thereafter, for the determination of swellable clay minerals (smectite, vermiculite), all ceramic plates were put into an atmosphere VDWXUDWHGZLWKHWK\OHQHJO\FRO6XEVHTXHQWO\IRUWKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIZHOOFU\VWDOOLVHGNDROLQLWH these plates, which had already been preprared with potassium, were additionally treated with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). In addition to this process, the plates were tempered at 550°C for two hours to determine primary chlorite. After each treatment the samples were X-rayed (K and 0JSODWHVIURPWRșZLWKHWK\OHQHJO\FROWUHDWHGSODWHVIURPWRșZLWKGLPHWK\O VXOIR[LGH'062WUHDWHGSODWHVIURPWRșDQGWHPSHUHGSODWHVIURPWRș7KH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIFOD\PLQHUDOVLVFRQGXFWHGDFFRUGLQJWR7KRUH]%URZQ0RRUH 5H\QROGVDQG:LOVRQ)RUWKHVHPLTXDQWLWLYHHYDOXDWLRQWKHDUHDVRIFKDUDFWHU-LVWLFSHDNVLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWKHPSLULFDOFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRUVZHUHXVHG5LHGPOOHU7KH untreated remaining clay fraction is freeze-dried for further investigation.

### 2.2.5 Simultaneous Thermal Analysis (STA)

PJRIWKHJURXQGHGDQGDWDUHODWLYHKXPLGLW\RIHTXLOLEUDWHGVDPSOHZHUHKHDWHGIURP 25°C to 1,000°C in a Pt-Rh crucible at a heating rate of 10°K per minute. Measurement was con-GXFWHGXVLQJDQLQVWUXPHQWRI1HWVFK/X[[DWDÀRZRIPORIQLWURJHQDQGPODLUSHU minute. As a correction, an empty crucible was used. STA results were used for the determination of the content of gypsum and calcite. Several peaks resulting from an endothermic or exothermic SURFHVVZHUHW\SLFDOIRUPRVWRIWKHVDPSOHVDQGQRWDGGLWLRQDOO\TXRWHG


### 2.2.6 Infrared Spectroscopy (IRS)

Compacted samples were composed of 250 mg potassium bromide and 1 mg clay, or 1 mg of grounded and at 70°C dried clay. IR-spectra were measured with a Bruker spectrometer Tensor 27 between wave numbers 4,000 cm-1 and 500 cm-1.

### 2.2.7 Sample colours

Sample colours were determined in a dry and semi-dry state according to the Munsell Soil Colour &KDUW,QWKHIROORZLQJGHWDLOHGPHQWLRQLQJRIWKHVLQJOHVDPSOHVကFRORXUVIXUWKHUH[SODQDWLRQLV only given in the case of deviation from the average appearance of samples within one region. For the determination, the colours in the chart mentioned with the appendix YR (Yellow-Red) DUHXVHG0XQVHOOFDWHJRULVHVEHWZHHQ¿YHKXHV55HG<<HOORZ\*\*UHHQ%%OXHDQG 33XUSOHDQGLQWHUPHGLDWHKXHV<5\*<\*UHHQ<HOORZ%\*%OXH\*UHHQ3%3XUSOH%OXH and RP (Red-Purple). The resulting ten hues are again divided into ten increments, in total resulting in 100 hues. Practically, only forty are used, containing four charts titled as 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10. The two following numbers, which are divided by a dash, categorise the lightness between 0 (black) and 10 (white) and the chroma, which is measured radially. The 10YR chart most often used within the current research, followed by 7.5YR. This designation is followed by two num-EHUVHJ<57KH¿UVWQXPEHUUDQJHVEHWZHHQDEVROXWHEODFNDQGDEVROXWHZKLWH and the second number indicates clay colour ranges app. between 2 and 8 in the current research. For all samples, the dry and also semi-dry colours were measured.

### 2.2.8 Shrinkage

The value of the geological shrinkage refers to the weight of the humid sample as 100%, while the geotechnical shrinkage refers to the dried sample as 100%. In the following, geotechnical shrinkage is given.

### 3. 0ංඇൾඋൺඅඈංർൺඅൺඇൺඅඒඌංඌඈൿർඅൺඒඌൺආඉඅൾඌ

### %ൺඌඈí0ൺංඍඋൾඒൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

Fig. 3.1 (Left) Basgo. Palace and monastery. Picture on the top right: Maitreya Lhakhang. Fig. 3.2 (Right) Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang with plastered round-shaped pillars.

Fig. 3.3 (Left) Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang. Ground plan and section. The ground plan shows the position of the roundshaped pillars.

Fig. 3.4 (Right) Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang. Damage at the plaster on a pillar.

### Sampling point

Ladakh, %DVJR0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJXSSHUWHPSOHORFDWHGDSSDW¶´1¶´( (see Map 3.2, Figs. 3.1 to 3.3). The name of this temple follows a locally common designation. 7KHSLOODUVDUHSODVWHUHGDQGSDLQWHGUHG'HEULVZDVFROOHFWHGE\DZRUNHUIURPWKHÀRRUGXULQJ renovation work, originating from a deep crack in the plaster of a pillar (Fig. 3.4). The plaster is composed of two layers, a levelling (lower) layer and an upper layer, on which the red paint was applied. This sample belongs to the levelling layer (= ground layer), which was applied onto DQGEHWZHHQDURSHOLNHEXQFKRI¿EUHV7KHURSHKDVDGLDPHWHURIDSSFPDQGZDVKHOLFDOO\ twisted around the wooden pillars (Fig. 3.5). In Ladakh, plastering of a wooden pillar is a rarely used WHFKQLTXH&RPPRQO\ZRRGHQSLOODUVZKLFKDUHURXQGRUDQJXODUDUHGLUHFWO\SDLQWHGEXW not plastered. The diameter of these pillars including the plaster is app. 30 cm, and the plastering was conducted along the full height of the pillar at app. 5.30 m. The thickness of the full plaster compound is app. 3 cm to 4 cm, and the thickness of the levelling layer is app. 2 cm. Sample QXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$,3 ,,\$GGLWLYHV6WUDZZLWKDOHQJWKRIXSWRFPLVSUHVHQWLQD small amount. Constructive use: Levelling layer of plaster on a round wooden pillar. The organic ¿EUHVRULJLQDWHIURPWKH*busho* JUDVVZKLFKJURZVLQWKH¿HOGVRIBasgo. It becomes elastic when moistened, and reaches lengths of up to three metres. Furthermore, this grass is known for being WZLVWHGLQWRDURSH7RGD\LWLVXVHGDVDQLPDOIHHGDQGIRUPDNLQJ¿UH-XQHDQG-XO\DUHWKHEHVW months to harvest this grass.

Fig. 3.5 (Left) Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang. Fibres visible due to a damage of the plaster.

### Grain size distribution

As a SODVWHU OHYHOOLQJ OD\HU WKH PDWHULDO LV UHODWLYHO\ ¿QH ELJJHVW IUDFWLRQ ¿QH JUDYHO 7KH PHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH )UDFWLRQV!ȝPDPRXQWWRDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDO7KHPD[LPXPSHDNLVPHdium silt, and the whole sample is dominated by the silt and sand fractions. The sharp break in WKHJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQEHWZHHQ¿QHVLOWDQGFRDUVHFOD\SRLQWVWRZDUGVWKHDGGLWLRQRIFRDUVH material or the GHVOXGJLQJRI¿QHPDWHULDOWRDYRLGFUDFNV


### Grain shapes

Grain size is up to 8 mm. \*UDLQVKDSHV!ȝPDQGDOVREHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUH GRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶7KLVIDFWGRHVQRWVXSSRUWWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKHPDWHULDOFDQEHD PL[WXUHRIWZRGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIFOD\)LJ

### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of amphiboles, 7Å minerals, phyllo silicates, TXDUW] K-feldspar, plagioclase and calcite, but no gypsum. 14Å minerals, mica and hematite are present in trace amounts. The content of calcite is 8%.

Fig. 3.6 Shape of grains in sample 6FDOHGLQPLOOLPHWUH6KDSH RIIUDFWLRQ!ȝPOHIW ±ȝPULJKW

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals. Comparison with other samples shows WKLVVDPSOHWREHHTXDOZLWKVDPSOHLHWKHVDPSOHRIWKHXSSHUOD\HURIWKHplaster in the Maitreya Lhakhang. This indicates that for the levelling plaster of the pillar and the interior wall SODVWHUWKHVDPHPDWHULDOSRVVLEO\IURPWKHVDPHSLWZDVXVHGVHHVDPSOH\$WRIWKH clay fraction), the sample shows a relatively high content of swellable clay minerals (22% smectite and 22% vermiculite). According to most of the samples within this region, the content of kaolinite is rather low.


### %ൺඌඈí0ൺංඍඋൾඒൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, Maitreya Lhakhang (upper temple). Debris was collected by a worker from the ÀRRUGXULQJUHQRYDWLRQZRUNRULJLQDWLQJIURPDORQJDGHHSFUDFNLQWKHplaster of a round and UHGFRORXUHGSLOODUOLNHVDPSOHORFDWHGDSSDW¶´1¶´(7KHplaster is composed of two layers: the levelling (lower) layer and the upper layer, on which the red paint was applied. The thickness of the red-painted upper layer is app. 1.5 cm. This sample is related to VDPSOHOHYHOOLQJSODVWHURQDSLOODUDQGLVWKHVHFRQGDQGXSSHU¿QHplaster layer not rein-IRUFHGZLWK¿EUHVOLNHWKHOHYHOOLQJOD\HU6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$,3,9&RQVWUXFWLYH use: Upper layer of a pillar plaster.

#### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\¿QHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHG DWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH)UDFWLRQV!ȝPWR-JHWKHUPDNHXSDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDO7KHPD[LPXPSHDNLVPHGLXPsand, and the whole sample is dominated by VDQGIROORZHGE\VLOWDQGFOD\IUDFWLRQV,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKH¿QH layer is coarser than the levelling layer. An explanation for this may be the fact that the less coarse PDWHULDOLQWKHOHYHOOLQJOD\HUDGKHUHVEHWWHUWRWKH¿EUHVEHORZWKDQWKHFRDUVHPDWHULDO6LQFH the amount of swellable clay minerals (smectite and vermiculite) is relatively high, the addition of sand seems to be useful against cracking. Nevertheless, the 2 μm fraction is with 17% more present as is the case in the levelling layer. The grain size distribution graphics do not show such an immediate break between silt and clay, as is the case in the levelling layer. This would point WRZDUGVDUHGXFWLRQRIWKH¿QHPDWHULDOE\desludging of the levelling material but an addition of coarse material in the VDQGDQG¿QHJUDYHOIUDFWLRQV


### Grain shapes

The grain size is up to 4 mm. \*UDLQVKDSHV!ȝPDUHµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶DQGSDUWLDOO\VKRZ µEHJLQQLQJURXQGLQJ¶)LJZKLOHIRUWKHIUDFWLRQVEHORZSULPDULO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶JUDLQV DUHDYDLODEOH&RPSDUHGZLWKWKHFRDUVHOD\HUIURPVDPSOHDQDGGLWLRQDOJUDLQVKDSHDS-SHDUVLQWKHJUDYHOIUDFWLRQZLWKD¿QHUVKDSHWRZDUGVµEHJLQQLQJURXQGLQJ¶7KHµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ PDWHULDOEHFRPHVOHVVLQWKH¿QHUXSSHUOD\HU7KLVIDFWPD\HPSKDVLVHWKHK\SRWKHVLVRIVHSDUDW-LQJWKHYHU\FRDUVHDQGDGGLQJ¿QHUPDWHULDOIRUWKHupper plaster layer.

)LJ 6KDSH RI JUDLQV LQ VDPSOH 6KDSHRIIUDFWLRQ!ȝP

### Bulk mineral analysis

The %0\$VKRZVPLQHUDOFRQWHQWVYHU\VLPLODUWRVDPSOHZLWKMXVWDVOLJKWO\KLJKHUFRQWHQW of TXDUW]DQGSODJLRFODVH7KHFRQWHQWRIcalcite is 11%, as shown in Table 3 given at the end of this chapter. It was possibly used as a base layer before the addition of red paint. The colours, particularly LQDVHPLGU\VWDWHDUHWKHVDPHLQWKHVDPSOHVDQG7UDFHVRIKHPDWLWHH[SODLQWKHOLJKW reddish colour, though not the red paint as shown in the picture.

### Clay mineral analysis

The &0\$ VKRZV D VFDWWHUHG FRQWHQW RIWKH FOD\PLQHUDOV VLPLODUWRVDPSOH 7KHPXFK KLJKHUFRQWHQWRILOOLWHLVDVWULNLQJGL൵HUHQFH


### Additives

Straw with a length of up to 1 cm is minimally present. The content of straw seems less than we ¿QGLQWKHOHYHOOLQJOD\HUDQGWKH¿EUHVDUHPXFKVKRUWHU

### %ൺඌඈí0ൺංඍඋൾඒൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

'HEULVZDVFROOHFWHGE\DZRUNHUIURPWKHÀRRUGXULQJUHQRYDWLRQZRUNRULJLQDWLQJIURPDGHHS crack along the left wall (view towards central statue). The thickness of the full plaster compound ZDVDSSFP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$/6&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH,QWHULRUplaster on the OHIWZDOOLQWKHDVVHPEO\KDOO\$GGLWLYHV\$VPDOODPRXQWRI¿QH¿EUHVRIstraw and small pieces of ZRRGDUHSUHVHQWWKRXJKQRWDVFRDUVHDVIRXQGLQVDPSOHVDQG7KXVDGL൵HUHQWZD\ of processing between the plasters used on the pillars and the plaster used on the wall is shown.

### Grain size distribution

The material is relatively coarse, with the biggest fraction composed of medium gravel. The me-GLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHVH data are similar to levelling SODVWHU\$ELJGL൵HUHQFHLVWKHKLJKFRQWHQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDO LQVDPSOHLQSDUWLFXODUDKLJKDPRXQWRIFRDUVHVDQGDQG¿QHJUDYHODVZHOODVPHGLXP JUDYHO)UDFWLRQV!ȝPWRJHWKHUPDNHXSDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDOZKLFKLVDOVRVLPLODU WRVDPSOH7KHZKROHVDPSOHLVGRPLQDWHGE\WKHsand fraction followed by silt and clay fractions. Also in this case, the amount of swellable clay minerals (smectite and vermiculite) is relatively high, and the addition of sand seems to be useful against cracking. Since the basic material contains the whole SODVWHUFRPSRXQGOHYHOOLQJDQG¿QHplaster) and seems to be similar to what was used for the plaster of the pillars, this sample represents an average of the added data gathered at the pillar SODVWHUVDPSOHVDQG

Taking into account the fact that the CMA of samples of the Maitreya Lhakhang show a slight similarity to sample 8475 (SODVWHULQWKHµ/KDNKDQJFORVHWRWKHURDG¶H[SODLQHGLQWKHIROORZLQJ JUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQVZLOOEHFRPSDUHG5HJDUGLQJWKHPHGLDQDQGȝPRIVDPSOHV DQGZHVWDWHWKHIROORZLQJ

7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQDWDSS

7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQDWDSS

7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQDWDSS

7KLVFRPSDULVRQVKRZVDFORVHVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQWKHJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQVRIVDPSOHV DQGZKLOHVDPSOHWKHinterior wall plaster in the Maitreya Lhakhang, is much coarser.


Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶VLPLODUWRVDPSOH 7KLVLVSRVVLEO\DUHVXOWRIdesludging or separating the raw material and adding the leftover sand to the plaster.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The %0\$VKRZVDPLQHUDOFRQWHQWVLPLODUWRVDPSOHLHWKHOHYHOOLQJplaster in the Maitreya Lhakhang, but with a slightly higher content of K-feldspar and a much higher content of plagioclase. An 8% content of FDOFLWHLVVLPLODUWRWKHOHYHOOLQJOD\HU\$Qanthropogenic addition cannot be excluded, possibly as a base layer for the addition of red painting, or the use of a content of *martsi*7LELVDUHGFRORXUFOD\ZLWKDKLJKFRQWHQWRIcalcite) for the red painting. *Martsi* shows a high content of calcite, which explains the slightly higher amount of calcite in sample LHWKHXSSHUDQG¿QHUplaster layer of the pillar. Compared with sample 8475, i.e. the interior wall SODVWHULQWKHµ/KDNKDQJFORVHWRWKHURDG¶VLPLODULW\LVIRXQGWKRXJKQRWDVVWURQJ DVZLWKVDPSOHZKLFKLVDPDWHULDOIURPWKHVDPHWHPSOH7KHFRORXUVSDUWLFXODUO\LQWKH VHPLGU\VWDWHDUHVLPLODUIRUVDPSOHVDQG7UDFHVRIKHPDWLWHH[SODLQWKHOLJKW reddish colour.

### Clay mineral analysis

The &0\$VKRZVDVFDWWHUHGFRQWHQWRIWKHFOD\PLQHUDOV\$GL൵HUHQFHLQFRPSDULVRQWRVDPSOHV DQGSLOODUplasters) is the much higher content of smectite (44% of the clay fraction) and swellable clay minerals (60% of the clay fraction), which makes this sample much more VZHOODEOH7KLVMXVWL¿HVWKH KLJKHU DPRXQW RI FRDUVHPDWHULDO ± SDUWLFXODUO\ JUDYHO ±WKDW DFWV against cracking. Regarding comparison with sample 8475 (plaster in the 'Lhakhang close to the URDG¶VLPLODULWLHVDUHREYLRXVSRLQWLQJWRZDUGVDVLPLODUEDVLFPDWHULDO


### %ൺඌඈí/ඈඍඌඵൻൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

The /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(7KHQDPHXVHGIRUWKLV Basgo temple follows a locally common designation. Remains of the interior upper plaster carry remnants of a white layer. The thickness of the whole plaster is 2.5 cm, and the thickness of the XSSHUOD\HULVDSSFP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$,3,,,\$GGLWLYHV/RQJSLHFHVRI straw up to 2 cm and also very short pieces (<2 mm) are present in small amounts. Constructive use: Interior wall SODVWHUXSSHUOD\HU)LJVWR

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\¿QHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHOYHU\VPDOODPRXQW 7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH At 62.5%, the silt content is relatively high and may be relevant for the compensation of the high content of VZHOODEOHFOD\WRDYRLGFUDFNV)UDFWLRQVEHORZȝPVLOWDQGFOD\WRJHWKHUPDNHXS DERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDO6LOWDQGFOD\WRJHWKHUFRPSRVHRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KH PD[LPXPSHDNFOHDUO\FRUUHVSRQGVWRPHGLXPDQG¿QHVLOWWRJHWKHU6LQFHWKHDPRXQWRI swellable clay minerals (smectite and vermiculite) is relatively high, the addition of sand seems to be useful against cracking. The grain size distribution graphics do not show an immediate break RUDELPRGDOGLVWULEXWLRQ±DSRVVLEOHHYLGHQFHIRUWKHXVHRIWKHdesludging method and a lack of

Fig. 3.8 (Top, left) Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ\*URXQGSODQ *cella* niche. )LJ7RSULJKWBasgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ9LHZWRZDUGV*cella* niche. Fig. 3.10 (Bottom, left) Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ%ULFNERQG

Fig. 3.11 (Bottom, right) Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ/D\HUVRIplaster next to a wooden bracket.

addition of coarse material. This is particularly seen when compared to the brick sample from the VDPHZDOOZKLFKVKRZVDPXFKKLJKHUFRQWHQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDO


Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶DQGJLYHQRHYLdence for the addition of another material.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of amphiboles, 7Å minerals, phyllo silicates, TXDUW].IHOGVSDU plagioclase, and calcite. 14Å minerals, PLFDDQG KHPDWLWHDSSHDUDVWUDFHV ± JHQHUDOO\ VLPLODUWR VDPSOHVDQG7KHFRQWHQWRIcalcite is 6%, as shown in Table 3. Compared to other Basgo samples, the content of calcite is evident in most of the samples and an average amount of app. 8% seems to be naturally given. Regarding this fact, the white layer seems to be the result of slight remains of a layer of gypsum, as shown in the BMA.

The content of gypsum was measured at 2%. A content of gypsum was also traced by ;UD\GL൵UDFtion within a slower measurement. Since there is no evidence of J\SVXPLQVDPSOHplaster ZLWKRXWZKLWHFRDWLQJRUVDPSOHadobe EULFN±ERWKRIZKLFKKDYHDVLPLODUFRQWHQWRIcal-FLWH±WKHK\SRWKHVLVRIDgypsum layer upon the plaster may be emphasised. The colours, particularly LQWKHVHPLGU\VWDWHDUHWKHVDPHIRUVDPSOHVDQG7UDFHVRIKHPDWLWHH[SODLQ the light reddish colour.

Results measured with STA


7KHUHVLGXDOPDVVDW&LV

Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of the clay minerals with a relatively high content of illite.


The CMA of sample 8482 (plaster from the '/RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ¶VKRZVVLPLODULWLHVZLWKVDPSOHV plaster on the pillar in the Maitreya Lhakhang) and 8465 (mixture for ÀDWroof construction). At 23% of the clay fraction, smectite and vermiculite are similarly present as swellable PLQHUDOVIRUVDPSOH7KLVLVORZHUWKDQIRUVDPSOHVDQGZLWKDQGUHspectively. The amount of illite is nearly the same, and the amount of kaolinite is in general small. Also the content of FKORULWHLVUDWKHUVLPLODUWRVDPSOHVDQG\$OOWKHVHVDPSOHVGRQRW really show a clear marker for their local assignment.

A comparison of the grain size distribution shows the interior plaster in the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJEH-LQJE\IDUWKH¿QHVWRIWKHH[DPLQHGplasters, followed by the plaster on the pillar in the Maitreya Lhakhang and further by the material used for a ÀDWroof. Regarding the content of clay, these three samples are relatively close to each other, in particular sample 8482 (interior plaster in the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJDQGVDPSOHPDWHULDOXVHGIRUDÀDWroof).


### %ൺඌඈí/ඈඍඌඵൻൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJOLNHVDPSOHLWLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1 ¶´(5HPDLQVRIWKHLQWHULRU¿QHplaster carried remnants of a white layer (probably lime or J\SVXP7KLVVDPSOHZDVIRXQGLQWKHVDPHFKDPEHUDVVDPSOHEXWDORQJDGL൵HUHQW section of the wall. The results are expected to be similar to those of sample 8482. The thickness RIWKHXSSHUOD\HULVDERXWFP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$,3\$GGLWLYHV/RQJSLHFHV of straw up to 1 cm and also very short pieces (<2 mm) are present in a relatively small amount, similar to sample 8482. Constructive use: Interior wall SODVWHUXSSHUOD\HU

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\¿QHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHOYHU\VPDOODPRXQW 7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH DTXDUWHURIWKHZKROHVDPSOH\$WWKHFRQWHQWRIVLOWLVUHODWLYHO\KLJKDQGPD\EHUHOevant for the compensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks. Fractions <63 ȝPVLOWDQGFOD\DPRXQWWRDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDO7KHPD[LPXPSHDNFRUUHVSRQGV WRPHGLXPDQG¿QHVLOWWRJHWKHUHTXDOOLQJ6LQFHWKHDPRXQWRIswellable clay minerals (smectite and vermiculite) is relatively high, the addition of sand seems to be useful against cracking. The grain size distribution graphics do not show an immediate break or valley between two IUDFWLRQV±DSRVVLEOHHYLGHQFHIRUWKHXVHRIWKHdesludging method and lack of the addition of coarse material. This is seen in particular when compared to the brick sample from the same wall ZKLFKVKRZVDPXFKKLJKHUFRQWHQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDO


### Grain shapes

The size of the grains is up to app. 7 mm. The JUDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUH GRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶DQGJLYHQRHYLGHQFHIRUWKHDGGLWLRQRIDQRWKHUPDWHULDO'HVOXGJLQJ of the material cannot be excluded.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The BMA shows more or less the same result as sample 8482, and emphasises the similarity between these two samples and the fact that for one interior SODVWHUWKHVDPHUDZPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHV DQG UH¿QHPHQWVRIWKHPDWHULDOZHUHFKRVHQ7KHFRQWHQWRIFDOFLWHZDVPHDVXUHGDW7KH content of gypsum was measured at 2%, same as for sample 8482. A content of gypsum was also traced in the ;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQDVDUHVXOWRIDVORZHUPHDVXUHPHQW7KHFRORXUVSDUWLFXODUO\LQ WKHVHPLGU\VWDWHDUHWKHVDPHIRUVDPSOHVDQG7UDFHVRIKHPDWLWH explain the light reddish colour.

Results measured with STA


### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of the clay minerals with a relatively similar proportion of the single minerals compared with sample 8482. Only the amount of smectite strongly varies between DQGRIWKHFOD\IUDFWLRQ±SRVVLEO\GXHWRWKHXVHRIGL൵HUHQWOD\HUVZLWKLQWKHclay pit or the use of material from clay pits close to each other.

108 Chapter III


### %ൺඌඈí/ඈඍඌඵൻൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

#### Sampling point

The ruin of the /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJ OLNH VDPSOH LV ORFDWHG DW DSS ¶´1 ¶´(5HPDLQVRIWKHinterior plaster (levelling and upper layer) carry no remnants of a white layer. This sample was found in the same chamber as samples 8482 and 8483 but at a dif-IHUHQWVHFWLRQRIWKHZDOO,WFRQWDLQVDOHYHOOLQJOD\HUDQGD¿QHXSSHUOD\HU7KHWKLFNQHVVRIWKH SODVWHULVDERXWFP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG\$GGLWLYHV6WUDZRIDOHQJWKRIXSWRFP is present in a medium amount. Constructive use: Interior wall SODVWHUOHYHOOLQJDQGXSSHUOD\HU

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLV UHODWLYHO\¿QH EXWLQ JHQHUDOFRDUVHUWKDQ VDPSOHV DQG SUHYLRXVO\ H[DPLQHGELJJHVWIUDFWLRQPHGLXPDQG¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKH PIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHFRQWHQWRIVLOWDWLVUHODWLYHO\KLJK and may be relevant for the compensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks. )UDFWLRQVȝPVLOWDQGFOD\DPRXQWWRDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDO7KHPD[LPXP SHDNFRUUHVSRQGVWRPHGLXPDQG¿QHVLOWZLWKERWKWRJHWKHUHTXDOOLQJ7KHDPRXQWRI VZHOODEOHFOD\PLQHUDOVVPHFWLWHQRYHUPLFXOLWHLVPXFKOHVVWKDQIRUVDPSOHVDQG which may indicate that the material for the interior plaster was not taken from only one particular pit and may have been added at a later time. The grain size distribution graphics do not show an LPPHGLDWHEUHDNRUYDOOH\EHWZHHQWZRIUDFWLRQV±HYLGHQFHIRUWKHXVHRIWKHdesludging method and lack of addition of coarse material. This may be seen in particular when compared to the brick VDPSOHIURPWKHVDPHZDOOVDPSOHZKLFKVKRZVDPXFKKLJKHUFRDUVHFRQWHQWDQGDYDOley in the grain size classes, likely related to a material mixture. For this sample, a lesser content of clay and a higher content of sand may be due to a higher amount of parts of the levelling layer, a similarity to samples 8482 and 8483.


### Grain shapes

\*UDLQ VKDSHV EHWZHHQ ȝP DQG ȝP DUH GRPLQDQWO\ µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ ZLWK DWHQGHQ-F\ WRZDUGV µDQJXODU ZLWK EHJLQQLQJ URXQGLQJ¶ ZKLFK RFFXUV ÀXHQWO\ DV RSSRVHG WR DEUXSWO\ (Fig. 3.12). This fact emphasises the hypothesis that the addition of another material was probably not relevant, but possibly desludging and the addition of desludged material may have had an impact.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The BMA shows more or less the same result as samples 8482 and 8483, and emphasises its similarity and the fact that for one interior SODVWHUWKHVDPHUDZPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHVDQGUH¿QHPHQWV of the material were chosen. Contrary to samples 8482 and 8483, gypsum is present only in trace amounts, which may indicate the use of gypsum for the upper layer as a base for mural paintings. The content of calcite follows with 10% the average indicated amount of calcite within the Basgo samples. No gypsum is present. The colour of this sample varies slightly from the samples before due to its higher content of coarse material and shows a tendency towards grey with no red, same as the previous samples. This is also due to the absence of hematite.

Fig. 3.12 Shapes of grains in sample 6FDOHGLQPLOOLPHWUH 6KDSH RI IUDFWLRQ ! ȝP OHIW !ȝPULJKW

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of the clay minerals with a relatively similar proportion of the single minerals to samples 8482 and 8483. It shows similarities to the CMA of samples 8482 DQGEXWDOVRFOHDUGL൵HUHQFHVOLNHDVPDOOHUFRQWHQWRIVPHFWLWHWKHODFNRIYHUPLFXOLWHDQG a higher content of illite (65% of the clay fraction), both of which might indicate the use of a different clay pit. At 6%, the amount of swellable material is comparatively low.


### %ൺඌඈí/ඈඍඌඵൻൺ/ඁൺඁൺඇ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJOLNHVDPSOHLWLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1 ¶´(6DPSOHRIDQadobe EULFNIRXQGDORQJWKHUHDUZDOO6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG 68. Additives: Pieces of straw up to a length of app. 3 cm as well as very short pieces are present. ,QWKLVDUHDLWLVUDUHWR¿QGstraw content within an adobe brick. Constructive use: Adobe brick.

#### Grain size distribution

The material is relatively coarse, particularly when compared to plaster samples 8482, 8483 and ELJJHVW IUDFWLRQ¿QHJUDYHO&RPSDUHGZLWKinterior SODVWHUVDPSOHQRPHGLXP JUDYHOLVDYDLODEOH7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRI WKHZKROHVDPSOH7RJHWKHUHTXDOLQJWKHFRQWHQWRIJUDYHODQGsand together is relatively high and may be relevant for the compensation of the amount of swellable clay minerals (28%

### 110 Chapter III

smectite of the clay fraction). Additionally, it clearly shows a distinction between plaster and brick material. For binding a content of about 10% <2 μm is needed. The grain size distribution JUDSKLFVVKRZDELPRGDOGLVWULEXWLRQEHWZHHQ¿QHJUDYHODQGPHGLXPVDQG±SRVVLEOHHYLGHQFH for mixture with another material. In the case of the EULFNWKHPDWHULDOLVPXFKPRUHHTXDOWRWKH raw material or the added coarse material.


### Grain shapes

The size of the grains is up to 2 cm. \*UDLQVKDSHV!ȝPDQG!ȝPVKRZµEHJLQQLQJ URXQGLQJ¶DQGDUHDOVRµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ZKLOHIRUIUDFWLRQVEHORZȝPµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶LV GRPLQDQW7KLVFKDQJHLQVKDSHDWDURXQGȝPPD\EHDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHDGGLWLRQRIFRDUVH material (Fig. 3.13).

)LJ6KDSHVRIJUDLQVLQVDPSOH6FDOHGLQPLOOLPHWUH 6KDSHRIIUDFWLRQ!ȝPOHIW!ȝPFHQWUH!ȝPULJKW

### Bulk mineral analysis

The BMA shows similar results to SODVWHUVDPSOHVDQGZLWKVOLJKWO\OHVVDPphiboles. Also present is an 11% content of calcite, which follows the average amount of calcite found within the Basgo samples. No gypsum is present. Traces of hematite explain the light red-GLVKFRORXU\$VDGDUNHUVDPSOHWKLVVDPSOHGL൵HUVIURPVDPSOHVDQG

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of the clay minerals with relatively few similarities amongst WKHVLQJOHPLQHUDOVFRPSDUHGZLWKVDPSOHVDQG\$SDUWIURPVLPLODUL-WLHVLWDOVRVKRZVFOHDUGL൵HUHQFHVOLNHWKHKLJKHUDPRXQWRIVPHFWLWH+RZHYHUVLPLODUWRplaster WKHUHDUHQRLQGLFDWLRQVRIDFRQWHQWRIYHUPLFXOLWH7KHDPRXQWRILOOLWHLQFRQWUDVWLV similar to SODVWHUVDPSOHVDQGEXWGL൵HUVIURPSODVWHUVDPSOHZKLFKVWDQGVRXW at 65% of the clay fraction. Within all Basgo-Likir samples, two further samples, i.e. 11752 and VKRZVLPLODULWLHVWRVDPSOHDVVKRZQEHORZ7KHVHVLPLODULWLHVDUHQRYHUPLFXOLWH and a strongly marked FKORULWH7KH GL൵HUHQFHV EHWZHHQ VDPSOHV interior plaster) and adobe EULFNUHVXOWLQDGL൵HUHQWJHRORJLFDOPHFKDQLVPRIWUDQVSRUW

### Earth building traditions in Basgo and Likir / Ladakh 111


### %ൺඌඈíµ/ඁൺඁൺඇർඅඈඌൾඍඈඍඁൾඋඈൺൽ¶6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of a temple, is located along the left side of the road to Leh, and located DWDSS ¶´1 ¶´(7KH QDPHV RIWKHDIRUHWUHDWHGWHPSOHVPHQWLRQHGDV Maitreya Lhakhang and /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJIROORZDORFDOO\FRPPRQGHVLJQDWLRQ,QWKHFDVHRI this temple (which is related to sample 8475) no such obvious designation is available. For further treatment of this temple within this contribution, its location along the National Highway NH1D towards Leh is used as further designation and we simply refer to it as 'Lhakhang close to the URDG¶7KHVDPSOHVKRZVUHPDLQVRIWKHinterior plaster. The thickness of the plaster is app. 2.5 FP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$5=,3\$GGLWLYHV9HU\ORQJ¿EUHVRIstraw of up to 6 cm are present partially in a high amount. Constructive use: Interior wall plaster (Figs. 3.14 to 3.17).

Fig. 3.14 (Top, left) Basgo. Lhakhang. Ground plan. Fig. 3.15 (Top, right) Basgo. Lhakhang. View from the entrance towards the rear wall. Fig. 3.16 (Bottom, left) Basgo. Lhakhang. Interior plaster (B/W). Fig. 3.17 (Bottom, right) Basgo. Lhakhang. Exterior plaster.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\¿QHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHOZKLFKHTXDOVDQDPRXQW relatively high for SODVWHU7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSS RIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7RJHWKHUZLWKWKHFRQWHQWRI¿QHJUDYHOWKLVDPRXQWPD\EHUHOHYDQW for the compensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks. The distribution curve VKRZVDELPRGDOGLVWULEXWLRQZLWKSHDNVRI¿QHVDQGDQG¿QHVLOW±DSRVVLEOHHYLGHQFHRIDPL[ ture with another clay or sand.


### Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ZLWKRXWDQ\HYLdence of a change in shape. This fact may indicate that the material is raw and unmixed.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of mica, amphiboles, 7Å minerals, TXDUW]DQG.IHOGVSDU Plagioclase and calcite appear in a medium amount. Traces of 14Å minerals, phyllo silicates and hematite are available. The content of gypsum was measured at 2%, a possible indication for its use upon the plaster. A content of gypsum was also traced in the ;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQZLWKLQDVORZHU PHDVXUHPHQW,WLVWKHRQO\VDPSOHRIWKH¿YHH[DPLQHGVDPSOHVRIWKLVWHPSOHZLWKDFRQVSLFXous content of J\SVXP6DPSOH±DOVRDQinterior SODVWHU±RQO\VKRZVWUDFHVRIgypsum. It is likely that the gypsum has already been washed out. The content of calcite of sample 8475 was measured at 13%. Compared to other Basgo samples, the content of calcite is evident in most of the samples, and an average amount of app. 8% to 10% seems to be naturally given. The colours are within the investigated range of Basgo samples. Due to traces of hematite, the sample is slightly red coloured.

Results measured with STA


### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of illite and a high content of swellable clay minerals (33% of the clay fraction). The clay contains smectite and vermiculite. This sample shows similarity to the Basgo samples in general.


### %ൺඌඈíµ/ඁൺඁൺඇർඅඈඌൾඍඈඍඁൾඋඈൺൽ¶6ൺආඅඉൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of a temple along the left hand side of the road to Leh. Like sample 8475, it LVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(5HPDLQVRIWKH interior plaster. The thickness of the SODVWHULVDSSFP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG\$GGLWLYHV9HU\ORQJ¿EUHVRIstraw of up to 6 cm are partially present in a high amount. Constructive use: Interior wall plaster, similar WRVDPSOHEXWIURPDGL൵HUHQWORFDWLRQZLWKLQWKHZDOO

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\¿QHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQ¿QHJUDYHO7KHDPRXQWRIJUDYHOLVUHODWLYHO\KLJK for a SODVWHU7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKH whole sample. The content of silt and sand together at 71.4% is relatively high and, together with WKHFRQWHQWRI¿QHJUDYHOPD\EHUHOHYDQWIRUWKHFRPSHQVDWLRQRIWKHKLJKFRQWHQWRIswellable FOD\WRDYRLGFUDFNV7KHSHDNVFRUUHVSRQGWR¿QHVDQGDQG¿QHVLOW±DOOGDWDDUHUHODWLYHO\VLPLlar to sample 8475. Even the grain size distribution remains similar. The grain size distribution graphics shows a ELPRGDOGLVWULEXWLRQ±DSRVVLEOHHYLGHQFHIRUWKHPL[WXUHZLWKDQRWKHUPDWHULDO similar to sample 8475.


#### Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\DQJXODUVKDSHGZLWKRXWHYLGHQFHRI a change in shape. This fact may indicate the material as raw and unmixed.

#### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of amphiboles, 7Å minerals, TXDUW]DQG.IHOGVSDUPDUNHG LQ7DEOHZLWK
dolomite at 2% and calcite at 12% is also indicated. 14Å minerals, mica, phyllo silicates, gypsum and hematite appear as traces. The amount of 12% of calcite follows an aver-DJHTXDQWLW\ZLWKLQWKHBasgo samples. The colours are within the investigated range of Basgo samples. Due to traces of hematite, the sample is slightly red coloured.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of illite and a slightly smaller content of swellable clay minerals in comparison to sample 8475. In this case the clay contains only smectite, and no vermiculite. It clearly shows similarity to the Basgo samples in general.


### 114 Chapter III

### %ൺඌඈíµ/ඁൺඁൺඇർඅඈඌൾඍඈඍඁൾඋඈൺൽ¶6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of a temple located along the left hand side of the road to Leh. Like sample LWLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(5HPDLQVRIWKHH[WHULRUplaster. The thickness of the SODVWHULVDSSFP6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$5=\$3\$GGLWLYHV)LEUHV of straw of up to app. 3 cm are present in a high amount. Constructive use: Exterior wall plaster.

### Grain size distribution

The material is coarser than interior SODVWHUVDQGELJJHVWIUDFWLRQ¿QHJUDYHO7KH PHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KH content of VDQGDWDSSDQGJUDYHODWVKRZVDKLJKDPRXQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDO)RUWKH exterior plaster, a higher content of coarse material makes the plaster more resistant to precipitation. As a comparison, in Austria a thick layer of clay SODVWHU³¿UFRDW´ORFDOO\DOVRNQRZQDV "Åu-glehnert", is known to be mixed with cow dung. Whether or not this was the case at early Himalayan temples cannot be stated within this study. Since in the Himalayas dung is traditionally known as an additive for earth constructions, we cannot exclude a particular use for plasters. In this sample the content of binding material seems to have been reduced to a small but still binding amount. The grain sizes show a wide range in their distribution. The amount of clay in sample H[WHULRUplaster) is much smaller than for interior SODVWHUVDPSOHVDQG


### Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ZLWKRXWDQ\HYLdence of a change of shape. This fact may indicate the material as raw and unmixed.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of mica, amphiboles, 7Å minerals, TXDUW]DQG.IHOGVSDU LQ7DEOHPDUNHGZLWK
SODJLRFODVHDSSHDUVLQDPHGLXPDPRXQWLQWKHWDEOHPDUNHGZLWK cPLQHUDOVSK\OORVLOLFDWHVDQGKHPDWLWHDSSHDUDVWUDFHV&DOFLWHLVDYDLODEOHDWDQG dolomite at 3%. The relatively high amount of FDOFLWH¿WVLQWRWKHUDQJHRIVDPSOHVRIWKLVWHPSOH with a content between 12% and 15%. No traces of gypsum are present. It is similar to sample 7KHFRORXUVDUHZLWKLQWKHLQYHVWLJDWHGUDQJHRIBasgo samples. Due to traces of hematite the sample is slightly red coloured.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of swellable clay minerals. Smectite and vermiculite together make up 51% (of the clay fraction). Together ZLWKWKHFRQWHQWRI¿QHJUDYHOWKHKLJKDPRXQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDOPD\EHUHOHYDQWIRUWKHFRPpensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks. The following list shows a com-SDULVRQZLWKVDPSOHVDQGZLWKERWKFRPLQJIURPWKHVDPHEXLOGLQJDQGERWKVKRZLQJ

VLPLODULWLHVWRVDPSOH7KH&0\$RIVDPSOHH[WHULRUplaster) shows slight similarities to sample 8483 (interior plaster in the Basgo /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJ UHJDUGLQJ D KLJK FRQWHQW RI swellable minerals (35% of the clay fraction) and the proportion of smectite and vermiculite. 7KHDPRXQWRIVPHFWLWHLVFOHDUO\KLJKHULQVDPSOH,QVDPSOHDPL[HGOD\HUVKRZVD marker for its clearer local assignment.


### %ൺඌඈíµ/ඁൺඁൺඇർඅඈඌൾඍඈඍඁൾඋඈൺൽ¶6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of a temple located along the left hand side of the road to Leh. Same as sam-SOHLWLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(5HPDLQVRIDQadobe brick. Sample QXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$5=/6&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH Adobe brick.

### Grain size distribution

The material is relatively coarse, with the biggest fraction being coarse and medium gravel (in WKHJUDSKLFVWKHWRWDODPRXQWRIJUDYHOLVVKRZQLQWKH)\*¿QHJUDYHOIUDFWLRQ7KHPHGLDQLV ORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHFRQWHQWRI gravel at 35.8% and of sand at 42.5%, in summary 78.3%, shows a dominance of coarse material. 7KHKLJKDPRXQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDOLQGLFDWHVDGL൵HUHQWWUHDWPHQWRIWKHadobe brick material compared to the plaster samples. In this sample the content of binding material seems to have been reduced to a very small but still binding amount.


#### Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ZLWKRXWDQ\HYLdence of a change of shape. This fact indicates that the material is raw and unmixed.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of amphiboles, 7Å minerals, TXDUW]DQG.IHOGVSDUPDUNHG LQ7DEOHZLWK
SODJLRFODVHDQGcalcite appear in a medium amount (marked in the table with \$FRQWHQWRIgypsum was also found in trace amounts in the ;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQZLWKLQDVORZHU measurement. The content of calcite was measured at 12%, which compared to other Basgo samples is within an average amount. The colours are within the investigated range of Basgo samples. Since no hematite could be traced, the sample does not show any red colour.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of illite and a content of swellable clay minerals, in this case smectite and vermiculite. A relatively high content RIWKHVHWZRPLQHUDOVWRJHWKHUHTXDOO\RIWKHFOD\IUDFWLRQPD\H[SODLQDVWLOODYDLODEOH H൵HFWRIELQGLQJGHVSLWHDFRQWHQWRIJUDYHODQGVDQGWRJHWKHUHTXDOOLQJRI coarse material. The result of the &0\$¿WVZHOOLQWREDVLFIHDWXUHVRIPRVWRIWKHBasgo-Likir samples, i.e. a clear appearance of illite, up to a medium amount of smectite and vermiculite, a strong appearance of chlorite, and a few kaolinites. For the present sample, the amount of smec-WLWHLVPXFKOHVV7KLV¿WVZHOOIRULWVXVHDVPDWHULDOIRUWKHSURGXFWLRQRIDGREHbricks, since a minimal amount of smectite helps to avoid a high rate of deformation and cracks within the brick.


%ൺඌඈí/ඁൺඁൺඇµർඅඈඌൾඍඈඍඁൾඋඈൺൽ¶6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, ruin of a temple along the left hand side of the road to Leh. Same as sample 8475, LWLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(5HPDLQVRIDQadobe brick. Sample number LQWKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH Adobe brick.

### Grain size distribution

The material is relatively coarse, with the biggest fraction being medium gravel (in the graphics WKHWRWDODPRXQWRIJUDYHOLVVKRZQLQWKH)\*IUDFWLRQ7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSP the <2 μm fraction contains app. 10% of the whole sample. The content of gravel at 10.4% and of VDQGDWWRJHWKHUHTXDOOLQJ VKRZVDFOHDUGRPLQDQFHRIFRDUVHPDWHULDO7KH KLJKDPRXQWRIFRDUVHPDWHULDOLQGLFDWHVGL൵HUHQWWUHDWPHQWRIWKHadobe brick material. In this sample the content of binding material seems to have been reduced to a very small but still binding amount.

a. Since with the &0\$DVWURQJVLPLODULW\WRVDPSOHplaster in the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLV stated, the grain size distributions will be compared. Regarding the grain size distribution, the two samples show similarity in the clay fraction and partially in the gravel fractions, but the silt DQGLOOLWHIUDFWLRQVDSSHDUFRPSOHWHO\GL൵HUHQW7KHadobe brick is much coarser than the plaster.

b. Since with the &0\$DVWURQJVLPLODULW\WRVDPSOHplaster in the 'Lhakhang close to the URDG¶LVVWDWHGJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQVZLOOEHFRPSDUHG5HJDUGLQJJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQWKH adobe brick is much coarser than the plaster. As comparison with another adobe brick, the data of sample 8472 will be added.


### Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHGZLWKDEHJLQQLQJ URXQGLQJ¶)LJ7KLVIDFWPD\LQGLFDWHWKHPDWHULDODVUDZDQGXQPL[HG

)LJ6KDSHVRIJUDLQVLQVDPSOH6FDOHGLQPLOOLPHWUH 6KDSHRIIUDFWLRQ!ȝPOHIW!ȝPFHQWUH!ȝPULJKW

### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of amphiboles, 7Å minerals, TXDUW]DQG.IHOGVSDUPDUNHG LQ7DEOHZLWK

SODJLRFODVHDSSHDUVLQDPHGLXPDPRXQWPDUNHGLQWKHWDEOHZLWK

7KH amount of calcite was measured at 13% within the average range of Basgo samples. Dolomite, 14Å minerals, mica and phyllo silicates are all available in trace amounts. No gypsum could be detected. The colours are within the investigated range of Basgo samples. Since no hematite was LGHQWL¿HGWKHVDPSOHGRHVQRWVKRZDQ\UHGFRORXU7KHadobe brick was produced without any additives, similar to sample 8472.

a. A comparison of the %0\$ RI VDPSOH ZLWK VDPSOH plaster in the /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJVKRZVJUHDWVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQWKHVHWZRVDPSOHVFRQWUDU\WRGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHJUDLQ size fractions.

b. A comparison of the %0\$RIVDPSOHZLWKVDPSOHplaster in the 'Lhakhang close WRWKHURDG¶DOVRVKRZVJUHDWVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQWKHVHWZRVDPSOHVFRQWUDU\WRGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKH grain size fractions.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of illite and a small content of swellable clay minerals (in this case of smectite). The amount of kaolinite at app. 7% is relatively high compared to the other samples from this temple. The strong variation LQWKHFRQWHQWRIFOD\PLQHUDOVEHWZHHQVDPSOHDQGLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKH\GLGQRWRULJLnate from the same FOD\SLW)RUFRPSDULVRQVDPSOHplaster from the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ LVOLVWHGEHORZDQGVKRZVFORVHVLPLODULWLHVWRVDPSOH\$FORVHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQVDPSOHV

### 118 Chapter III

DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\brick and plaster) points towards the possibility of the use of a particular basic material. The other samples (see the following listed samples) from this building LHVDPSOHVDQGVKRZFOHDUGL൵HUHQFHVLQFRPSDULVRQWRVDPSOH


### %ൺඌඈí%ඎංඅൽංඇඋൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo. Red coloured clay from north of the Maitreya Lhakhang (upper temple) (Fig. ORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(7KHORFDOWHUPLQRORJ\LV*dzasa* (Tib. *rdza sa*), which possibly derives from pottery clay. An area, which is located about 2 km north of the temple hill, is called *"zasna"*SURQRXQFHGDQGSRLQWVWRZDUGVWKHLQÀXHQFHRIORFDOFOD\RQWRponymies. This material is one of the basic types of clay for building purposes in the area around the monastery hill. Along with the sandy *thetsa* (Tib. *'phred sa*), it is used as part of a mixture for the preparation of plasters. As mentioned by locals, this plaster is applied in two layers. The lower (levelling) layer is mixed with VWUDZ)RUWKHXSSHU¿QHOD\HUWKHVDPHPL[WXUHLVXVHGZLWKRXW straw. Such a two-layer plaster is found throughout this region with changing thickness and a variable amount of VWUDZ6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$/\*

)LJBasgo. Sample 15410. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 6/2 light brownish grey. Semi-dry 10YR 4/2 dark greyish brown.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVFRDUVHZLWKWKHELJJHVW IUDFWLRQEHLQJPHGLXPDQG¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLV ORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHJUDYHO IUDFWLRQVWRJHWKHUHTXDODERXWRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHPD[LPXPSHDNLVZLWK medium gravel dominating the whole sample. The distribution curve shows a bimodal distribu-WLRQZLWKDGHHSYDOOH\EHWZHHQ¿QHJUDYHODQG¿QHVDQG'XHWRWKLVYDOOH\WKHIUDFWLRQVRI¿QH VDQGDQGVPDOOHUSDUWVDUHHDVLO\VHSDUDWHGIURPWKHZKROHVDPSOHDQGWKH¿QHUSRUWLRQRIPDWHrial can be used for another purpose. This silt-dominated portion of the sample, which includes some clay, is appropriate for the mixing of plaster with coarse material such as *thetsa*. Instead of GHVOXGJLQJWKHJUDYHOIUDFWLRQDQGWKH¿QHPDWHULDOFDQEHVHSDUDWHGIURPHDFKRWKHUE\sieving. Nevertheless, due to the gravel-fraction, the coarse content must be separated to achieve a PDWHULDOPXFK¿QHUWKDQVKRZQE\VDPSOHVRI*thetsa*GHVFULEHGZLWKVDPSOHVDQG 3HUKDSVSLWVH[LVWZLWKRQO\WKH¿QHFRQWHQWDQGZLWKRXWWKHFRQWHQWRIJUDYHO\$QRWKHUK\SRWKHVLV can be that the rather high content of gravel shows a relatively high amount of coarse material in ODERUDWRU\UHVHDUFKEXWWKHKDSWLFLPSUHVVLRQLQWKH¿HOGGL൵HUVGXHWRDKLJKFRQWHQWRIVLOW7KLV PD\DOVREHWKHUHDVRQZK\ORFDOO\LWLVNQRZQDVD¿QHPDWHULDO\$SDUWIURPWKHKLJKDPRXQW of gravel, the grain size distribution shows a well-sorted curve. On the other hand, we may not H[FOXGHWKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWFRDUVHPDWHULDOZDVDGGHGWRD¿QHDQGVLOWGRPLQDWHG*dzasa* sample.


### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of 7Å minerals, TXDUW]DQGSODJLRFODVHPDUNHGLQWKHWDEOH ZLWK 
7UDFHV RI c PLQHUDOVmica, amphiboles, phyllo silicates, K-feldspar and dolomite (1%) appear as traces without indications of a content of gypsum. At 10%, the amount of calcite is average.

#### Clay mineral analysis

6LPLODUWRVDPSOHVDQGWKLVVDPSOHVKRZVDKLJKFRQWHQWRIWKHswellable mineral smectite (see Fig. CMA 3.28 in the Appendix of Chapter III).


### %ൺඌඈí%ඎංඅൽංඇඋൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, %DVJROLNHVDPSOHLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(7KHORFDO terminology is *thetsa* (Tib. *'phred sa*), also known as "*thetsa* sand", which already points towards its use as an additive locally mixed with the *dzasa* (Tib. *rdza sa*) (Fig. 3.20). Sample number in WKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH Raw material for the sandy additive for the preparation of a plaster.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVFRDUVHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSS PWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHJUDYHODQGsand fractions DPRXQWWRDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDO7KHPD[LPXPSHDNLVRIPHGLXPsand. Sand dominates the whole sample. This sample shows no bimodal distribution. This may be a hint that this material was not separated from another sample but used as a homogenous material with VDQG\GRPLQDQFH±FRQWUDU\WRWKH*dzasa,*ZKLFKZDVVHSDUDWHGDQGRIZKLFKWKH¿QHUIUDFWLRQV were probably preferred for the preparation of plasters. The high content of sand is clearly visible.

Fig. 3.20 %DVJR6DPSOH Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR (6)7/1 light grey. Semi-dry 10YR 4/1 dark grey.


### Bulk mineral analysis

The %0\$VKRZVFOHDUGL൵HUHQFHVWRWKH*dzasa* (15410): The sample contains only traces of 7Å minerals. It also contains a small amount of TXDUW]EXWDKLJKHUDPRXQWRISODJLRFODVH&RPSDUHG to sample 15410, no traces of dolomite are present, and further no traces of 14Å minerals or amphiboles are present. The K-feldspar is available in a small amount, while for sample 15410 it appears only in lesser trace amounts. Small reddish spots point towards a content of hematite. The amount of FDOFLWHDWLVEHORZWKHDYHUDJHOHYHOíIRUWKHVDPSOHVLQWKLVUHJLRQ Since this sample is used as raw material for mixing, we can assume that an average content of calcite is stated as naturally given. The sample does not show any content of gypsum. It is relatively greyish and shows reddish spots, probably traces of hematite.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of the clay minerals. Compared with sample 15410, the con-WHQWRIFOD\PLQHUDOVLVFOHDUO\GL൵HUHQW7KHFRQWHQWRILOOLWHDQGchlorite is much less compared to sample 15410. Regarding the CMA, in particular the high amount of VZHOODEOHPLQHUDOV± (of the clay fraction) for sample 11748 (used for making a FOD\ VWRYH± VKRZV VLPLODULWLHVWR VDPSOH±ZKLFKFRQWDLQVswellable material (i.e. a *thetsa,* which is not used for making a stove). Due to this analysis we can state that the *thetsa* potentially gives an optic and haptic impression of being coarse and thus may be known as a sandy material. Additionally, the content of clay minerals is similar to *dzasa* sample 15410, and furthermore the content of swellable minerals at 72% (of the clay fraction) is more than double compared to sample 15410 at 30%. This emphasises once more the hypothesis that sample 15410 shows an amount of gravel above average for *dzasa* raw material.

Regarding the rather high content of swellable clay minerals, this high amount we know from bentonites with a content of app. 60% to 80% of clay minerals, in this case montmorillonite, ZKLFKEHORQJVWRWKHVPHFWLWHJURXSWKDWLVDFOD\PLQHUDOFODVVL¿HGE\DOD\HUFKDUJHRI to 0.6. Montmorillonites also show a content of mica and FKORULWH\$WWKLVSRLQWWKHTXHVWLRQIRU a vulcanic indicator arises. The 2 μm CMA-graphics shows a di-octachedric smectite at app. 62°. Since the TXDUW]SHDNDWDSSLVKLJKHUWKDQWKHRQHDWDSSWKHDGGLWLRQDOVKDUHPD\EH described as content of mica. The sample may speculatively be described as a volcanic ash of old age. With a content of app. 80% of framework material and 20% of binding material, this mate-ULDOFDQEHGHVFULEHGDVDEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOZLWKDKLJKELQGLQJH൵HFWLQVSLWHRILWVUDWKHUFRDUVH appearance.


%ൺඌඈí%ඎංඅൽංඇඋൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, %DVJRVLPLODUWRVDPSOHLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(7KH local terminology is *thetsa* (Tib. *'phred sa*) (Fig. 3.21). This is another sample of this material for further comparison. As mentioned before, this material is known for the preparation of a plaster but it is also recognised for the preparation of ÀDW URRIVDQGÀRRUVLQSDUWLFXODU IRUWKHORZHU ¿UVWOD\HUZKLFKFDQDOVREHPL[HGZLWKYHU\FRDUVHPDWHULDOZLWKDVL]HRIXSWRFPWRFP The uppermost layer used for ÀDW URRIVZDVPHQWLRQHGHLWKHUDV*markalak* )HLJOVWRUIHU ൵RUDV*khusa* (Feiglstorfer 2014: 378), which is a kind of sooty material (mostly a recycled plaster from kitchens). For the preparation of adobe bricks, this kind of *thetsa* is used without any further mineral addition. If needed, VWUDZFDQEHDGGHG6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$ LG. Constructive use: Raw material for the sandy additive for the preparation of a plaster. It is also used for the lower layer of ÀDWURRIVDQGWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIDGREHbricks without any further mineral addition.

### Grain size distribution

The material is coarse and as expected similar to the *thetsa*VDPSOHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQ¿QH JUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPYHUVXVPIRUVDPSOHWKHPIUDFWLRQ FRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOHVDPHDVIRUVDPSOH7KHJUDYHODQGsand fractions DPRXQWWRDERXWRIWKHZKROHPDWHULDOYHUVXV IRUVDPSOH7KHPD[LPXP peak is 32.7% medium sand. Sand dominates the whole sample. There is no bimodal distribution as in sample 15410. This may indicate that the material was not separated but rather used as a homogenous material with sandy dominance. This is contrary to the *dzasa*, which may have been VHSDUDWHGDQGRIZKLFK¿QHUIUDFWLRQVZHUHSUHIHUUHGIRUWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIplaster. The sample is obviously sandy.

Interview with Sonam Dawa in /HK\$XJXVW:KHQXVLQJµKLJKTXDOLW\¶FOD\IRUWKHWRSroof layer and eventually adding ash, daily clearing of the snow from the URRILVQRWUHTXLUHG

Fig. 3.21 Basgo. Sample 15411. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 6/2 light brownish grey. Semi-dry 10YR 4/2 dark greyish brown.


### Bulk mineral analysis

:LWKVOLJKWGL൵HUHQFHVWKH%0\$VKRZVFORVHVLPLODULWLHVWRVDPSOH7KHGL൵HUHQFHVDUH the content of 7Å minerals in small amounts as opposed to trace amounts, and amphiboles and cPLQHUDOV DVWUDFHV ,Q VDPSOH DPSKLEROHV DQG cPLQHUDOV DUHPLVVLQJ D KLJKHU FRQWHQW RI .IHOGVSDU DSSHDUVLQ D PHGLXP DPRXQW PDUNHGLQ7DEOH ZLWK 

 FRQWUDU\WR VDPSOHZKLFKVKRZVRQO\DVPDOODPRXQW7KHFRQWHQWRIcalcite in sample 15411 is 11% FRPSDUHGWRLQVDPSOH6LPLODUO\QRdolomite and gypsum were traced. The content of calcite was measured at 11%.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals. A comparison with *thetsa*VDPSOH VKRZVVLPLODULWLHVEXWDOVRGL൵HUHQFHV7KHVHGL൵HUHQFHVHPSKDVLVHWKHIDFWWKDWWZRPDWHULDOV with the same local name and a high similarity in their grain size distribution and in their bulk mineral consistency must not necessarily follow a similarity of clay mineral content. Simply KDYLQJFOD\IURPDGL൵HUHQWclay pit may change the clay mineralogical composition and by that also its particular behaviour as a building material. In this particular context, the 38% content of smectite as a swellable material in sample 15411 compared with 72% of smectite and vermiculite LQVDPSOHPXVWUHVXOWLQDGL൵HUHQWEHKDYLRXUUHJDUGLQJVZHOODELOLW\7KHKLJKFRQWHQWRI chlorite indicates the PHWDPRUSKLFFKDUDFWHURIWKLVPDWHULDOGL൵HULQJIURPVPHFWLWHDQGmica, SRVVLEO\GXHWRDGL൵HUHQWPHDQVRIJHRORJLFDOPDWHULDOWUDQVSRUW

Both *thetsa*VDPSOHVDQGDUHUHODWLYHO\VLPLODUUHJDUGLQJWKH%0\$EXWVKRZGL൵HUences when comparing their CMA, as shown in the following juxtaposition.


%ൺඌඈí%ඎංඅൽංඇඋൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, a clay pit located beside the 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJDW¶´1¶´( This material is mixed and ready for application on a roof (Fig. 3.22). In a further step, this material is mixed with VWUDZ\*HQHUDOORFDOLQIRUPDWLRQGHVLJQDWHGWKLVPDWHULDODVDKLJKTXDOLW\EXLOGing material. The two afore-mentioned types of clay, *thetsa* and *dzasa*, are mixed. On wooden VWUHWFKHUVWKH¿QDOPL[WXUHVZHUHFDUULHGDORQJVWHSVRQWRWKHroof and sectionally poured onto the afore-applied layer of *jakses* (Figs. 3.23, 3.34). After a short drying process the applied and still KXPLGVHGLPHQWZDVFRPSUHVVHGDQGÀDWWHQHGZLWKZRRGHQEHDWHUV7KHVHEHDWHUVKDGDVLPLODU form to what is known from the construction of the *arga* URRIFI)HLJOVWRUIHU

6DPSOH QXPEHULQWKH ¿HOG %\$/\*\$GGLWLYHV 3LHFHV RI ZRRG DQGORQJ SLHFHV RIstraw. Constructive use: Mixture of *thetsa*, *dzasa* and straw for ÀDWroof construction.

Fig. 3.22 Basgo. Sample 8465. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 7/2 light grey. Semi-dry 10YR 5/3 brown.

Fig. 3.23 (Left) Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang. New roof construction. Fig. 3.24 (Right) Basgo. Maitreya Lhakhang. One layer of a mixture of *thetsa* and *dzasa*.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVFRDUVHDQGVKRZVVLPLODUTXDOLWLHVWRDPL[WXUHRIWKH*thetsa* and *dzasa*VDPSOHV ELJJHVW IUDFWLRQ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPYHUVXVP IRUVDPSOH DQG P IRU VDPSOH WKHP IUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSS IRUWKHZKROH VDPSOHFRPSDUHGWRIRUVDPSOHDQGIRUVDPSOH7KHJUDYHODQGsand fractions amount to about 63.3 % versus 74.8% of the whole material for sample 15411, and 62.6% for sample 15410. The maximum peak is 24.5% medium sand. The coarse fractions of sand and gravel dominate the sample.


### Grain shapes

7KHVL]HRIWKHJUDLQVLVXSWRPP7KH!ȝPIUDFWLRQVDUHµVOLJKWO\URXQGHGVKDSHG¶DQG DOVR µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ZKLOHWKH IUDFWLRQV EHORZDUH GRPLQDQWO\ µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶7KHFKDQJH LQWKHVKDSHDWDURXQGȝPPD\EHDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHDGGLWLRQRIDFRDUVHPDWHULDO)LJ 5HJDUGLQJWKHWZRGL൵HUHQWgrain shapes, the grain size distribution points to the use of two GL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIUDZPDWHULDODQGQRWEHLQJDQDWXUDOPL[WXUH

Fig. 3.25 Shapes of grains in sample 8465. Scaled in millimetre. 6KDSH RI IUDFWLRQ ! ȝP OHIW !ȝPULJKW

### Bulk mineral analysis

The BMA clearly shows properties of both types of clay: *thetsa* and *dzasa*. 14Å minerals, hematite and mica occur as traces, while amphiboles, 7Å minerals, phyllo silicates and TXDUW]DSSHDU LQDVPDOODPRXQWPDUNHGLQ7DEOHZLWK
.IHOGVSDUDQGSODJLRFODVHDUHSUHVHQWLQDPHGLXP and relatively high amount, respectively. Calcite ranges from 10% to 11%, with 10% being the average level. Traces of gypsum are present.

Results measured with STA


### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals. A comparison with *thetsa* sample 15411 and *dzasa* sample 15410 regarding VZHOODEOHFOD\PLQHUDOVSURYLGHVWKHIROORZLQJUHVXOWV for sample 8465, slightly above 30% for sample 15410, and 24% for sample 15411. The content of kaolinite is comparably low, while the value for illite is with 51% above the values of samples DQG


### %ൺඌඈí%ඎංඅൽංඇඋൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, new adobe brick. The material was found along a building site beside the *chorten* close to the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(7KHbrick is a UHFHQWSURGXFWLRQ)LJ6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG\$GGLWLYHV6KRUWSLHFHVRIstraw and pieces (up to app. 5 cm) of small branches were detected. For the preparation of adobe bricks in this area, straw was perhaps added due to the high content of clay and swellable clay minerals. Constructive use: Adobe brick.

Fig. 3.26 %DVJR 6DPSOH Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 6/2 light brownish grey. Semi-dry 10YR 3/2 very dark greyish brown.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVREYLRXVO\DPL[WXUHRIFRDUVHDQG¿QHPDWHULDO7KHLQWHQWLRQRIWKHSURGXFHUV must have been a wide range of fractions but does not follow the kind of ÀDWroof mixture of the *thetsa* and *dzasa*ZKLFKZHREVHUYHGZLWKVDPSOH7KHGLVWULEXWLRQRI¿QHDQGFRDUVHLV much more homogenous than found in ÀDWroof sample 8465 or in plaster sample 15410. Biggest IUDFWLRQ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPYHUVXVP IRUÀDWroof sample WKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOHYHUVXVIRUÀDWroof sample 7KHFRQWHQWRIFOD\DQGVLOW WRJHWKHUHTXDOOLQJLVUHODWLYHO\KLJKFRPSDUHGWRWKH other samples within this group of building raw materials. Compared to bricks from the Maitreya Lhakhang and the /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJWKLV PL[WXUHLV SDUWLFXODU ZLWK D FOHDU GL൵HUHQFHLQWKH FKRLFHRIWKHUDZPDWHULDOV7KHIROORZLQJOLVWFRPSDUHVVDPSOHZLWKRWKHUVDPSOHVRIWKLV JURXSDQGZLWKVDPSOHLHWKHbrick sample from the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ



### Grain shapes

7KHVL]HRIWKHJUDLQVLVXSWRPP7KH!ȝPDQG!ȝPIUDFWLRQVDUHµVOLJKWO\URXQG-HGVKDSHG¶DQGDOVRµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ZKLOHWKHIUDFWLRQVEHORZDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶ 7KLVFKDQJHLQWKHVKDSHDWDURXQGȝPPD\EHDQLQGLFDWLRQIRUWKHDGGLWLRQRIFRDUVHPDterial (Fig. 3.27). Regarding the grain shapes, the grain size distribution points to the use of two GL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIUDZPDWHULDODQGQRWDQDWXUDOPL[WXUH\$FFRUGLQJWRWKHgrain shapes, the grain VL]HGLVWULEXWLRQSRLQWVWRWKHXVHRIWZRGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIUDZPDWHULDO

)LJ6KDSHVRIJUDLQVLQVDPSOH6FDOHGLQPLOOLPHWUH 6KDSHRIIUDFWLRQ!ȝPOHIW!ȝPFHQWUH!ȝPULJKW

### Bulk mineral analysis

The BMA clearly shows properties close to those of this group of raw materials. 14Å minerals, mica, hematite and amphiboles occur as traces, while dolomite (app. 1%), 7Å minerals, phyllo silicates, TXDUW].IHOGVSDUDQGSODJLRFODVHRFFXULQVPDOODPRXQWVPDUNHGLQ7DEOHZLWK
 The content of calcite was measured at 11%, and no gypsum was traced.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of the clay minerals. In comparison with the other samples of WKLVJURXSRIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOVVDPSOHVKRZVWKHORZHVWFRQWHQWRIswellable clay minerals. On the other hand, a relatively high content of silt is present. This lower content of swellable minerals may explain why this sample, which has such a high content of clay minerals, does not shrink much or crack. The content of sand and gravel (together 42%) supports this behaviour, which is the aim for adobe brick material.


### %ൺඌඈíർඅൺඒඌඍඈඏൾ7ංൻ*thab*6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Tunlung near %DVJR7KHSLWLVORFDWHGDORQJWKHVORSHRIDKLOODWDSS¶´1 ¶´(6PDOOGLJJLQJKROHVLQGLFDWHWKDWWKLVSODFHKDVEHHQNQRZQIRUWKHFROOHFWLRQRI UDZPDWHULDO)LJ,WLVVDLGWKDWWKHSURSHUPDWHULDOFDQEHFUXPEOHGEHWZHHQWKH¿QJHUVRI one hand. Furthermore, a dark colour indicates higher humidity and by that easier crumbling. At ¿UVWJODQFHWKHFROOHFWHGVDPSOHVVHHPHGWREHDNLQGRIVWRQHPDWHULDO\$IWHUVHYHUDODWWHPSWVWKH PDWHULDOFUXPEOHGEHWZHHQWKH¿QJHUVLQWRVPDOOVDQG\SLHFHVJLYLQJWKHLPSUHVVLRQWKDWLWGLG QRWFRQWDLQHQRXJKELQGLQJPDWHULDO7KHULJKWSURSRUWLRQRIZDWHULVUHTXLUHGWRUHDFKWKHVWDWH RIµQRUPVWL൵QHVV¶\*HU*Normsteife*) so that the raw material becomes smoother, and capable of ELQGLQJDQGSURFHVVLQJ6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVHClay for the production of a FOD\VWRYH)LJVWR

Fig. 3.28 Tunlung. Sample 11748. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry10YR 7/6 yellow. Semi-dry 10YR 5/6 yellowish brown.

### Grain size distribution

The material is relatively coarse, with the biggest fraction being coarse and medium gravel. In the JUDLQVL]HJUDSKLFV¿QHDQGFRDUVHJUDYHODUHGLVSOD\HGWRJHWKHULQWKH)\*SHDN7KHPHGLDQLV ORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHFRQWHQWRI gravel is 31.8% and the content of sand 44.7%. Together at 76.5%, this sample shows a relatively high content of coarse material. This may be relevant for the compensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks and also for reduced elongation during heating. The maximum peak corresponds clearly to the gravel fraction. The grain size distribution graphics do not show an immediate break or bimodal distribution. Since the material was taken from the pit, the addition of material to this sample can be excluded.


### Grain shapes

The JUDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶DQGFRQWLQXously display the same rounding, thus giving no evidence of mixing.

)LJ7RSOHIWLadakh. Basgo. In a Tibetan farmhouse, a *thab* is a social centre of daily life.

Fig. 3.30 (Top, right) Ladakh. Basgo. A *thab* still in use.


### Bulk mineral analysis

The sample contains a small amount of 14Å minerals mica, phyllo silicates, TXDUW].IHOGVSDU and plagioclase, and a higher amount of 7Å minerals. Goethite and hematite were found in trace amounts. The stove clay does not contain calcite. The lack of FDOFLWHDOVRVXSSRUWVWKHPDWHULDO¶V use at higher temperatures, similar to *thabsa*VDPSOHVDQG&RQWUDULO\pottery clay samples 15515 and 11752, i.e. also for use at higher temperatures, contain calcite. No gypsum could be traced, contradicting use at high temperatures, similar to samples 15412 and ZKLFKDUHDOVRXVHGIRUVWRYHSURGXFWLRQ7KHFRORXUVDUHRXWVLGHWKHLQYHVWLJDWHGUDQJH of Basgo samples, since they are relatively yellowish, and in a dry and also a semi-dry state. The ;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQVKRZVDFOHDUSHDNDWș

Results measured with STA


### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of kaolinite and swellable clay minerals (smectite and in particular vermiculite at 42% of the clay fraction). It generally does not show similarity to the Basgo samples, with an exception being the other *thabsa* samples. The high content of kaolinite is a factor for increasing resistance against the high WHPSHUDWXUHWKDWRFFXUVZKHQ¿ULQJDVWRYH&KORULWHLVPLVVLQJ7KHKLJKFRQWHQWRIVPHFWLWHDQG YHUPLFXOLWHLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWKNDROLQLWHVKRZVDWHFKQLFDOFRQÀLFW UHJDUGLQJKHDW UHVLVWDQFH While smectite and vermiculite enable swelling, kaolinite supports a form of stability. A content of well-crystalised kaolinite is found in this sample.


%ൺඌඈíർඅൺඒඌඍඈඏൾ*thab*6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Tunlung near %DVJR7KHSLWLVORFDWHGDORQJWKHVORSHRIDKLOODWDSS¶´1 ¶´()LJ6PDOOGLJJLQJKROHVDORQJWKHURDGLQGLFDWHWKDWWKLVSODFHKDVEHHQ known as a location for collecting raw material. The material is similar to sample 11748, which ZDVWDNHQDERXWRQHPHWUHWRWKHVLGH6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$/\*&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH Clay for the production of an oven. Its use for roofs is problematic, since it becomes a clayey mass when getting in contact with water, although it is mentioned as a material for making ÀRRUV (Feiglstorfer 2014: 372).

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLV UHODWLYHO\FRDUVHZLWKWKHELJJHVW IUDFWLRQEHLQJPHGLXPDQG¿QHJUDYHO7KH PHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPPXFKORZHUWKDQIRUVDPSOHWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQV DSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH,QJHQHUDOWKLVPDWHULDOKDVDKLJKHUFRQWHQWRI¿QHPDWHULDOWKDQ sample 11748. The content of gravel is 23.7%, and the content of VDQG,QFRPELQDWLRQ giving 63.3%, the material is relatively coarse. This may be relevant for the compensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks and also to reduce elongation during heating. The maximum peak corresponds to the gravel fraction. The grain size distribution graphics do not show an immediate break or bimodal distribution. Since the material was taken directly from the pit, the addition of material in this sample can be excluded.


Bulk mineral analysis

The sample, which is very similar to sample 11748, contains a small amount of 14Å minerals, mica, 7Å minerals, phyllo silicates, TXDUW]SODJLRFODVHDQG.IHOGVSDUDQGQRcalcite or gypsum. The colours are outside the investigated range of Basgo samples, since they are relatively yellowish in a dry and also semi-dry state. The %0\$VKRZVDFOHDUSHDNRIșDQGWKHSTA shows a peak of 302°C. The content of a goethite could be proven.

Results measured with STA (Fig. 3.36)


### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a scattered content of clay minerals with a relatively high content of kaolinite and swellable clay minerals, i.e. smectite and in particular vermiculite at 42%. It does not show similarity to the Basgo samples in general. In the stove clay samples, chlorite is missing. The CMA of this sample along with the content of swellable clay minerals is similar to sample 15412. .DROLQLWHFRXOGEHLGHQWL¿HGDVZHOOFU\VWDOOLVHGLQWKHCMA and the IRS. Morever, with the IRS analysis, several other minerals, such as smectite and TXDUW]ZHUHSURYHQVHH)LJIRS 3.1 in the Appendix of Chapter III).

Fig. 3.36 Tunlung. Sample 15412. STA showing a content of goethite.

### %ൺඌඈíർඅൺඒඌඍඈඏൾ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, 1H ¶´1 ¶´( ORFDWHG DERXW NP QRUWK RIBasgo. The mate-ULDOZDVFROOHFWHGDWWKHIRRWRIWKHµWHPSOHKLOO¶RSSRVLWHWKHYLOODJHRINe (Fig. 3.37). Tsewang Norbu, a stove maker from Ne, collected the material and spoke of it as a better processable material than the material collected for samples 11748 and 15412. He also explained the procedure of making a stove from this material.6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVHClay stove.

#### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\FRDUVHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHG DWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHFRQWHQWRIJUDYHO is 21.2% and the content of sand is 44.1%, which together at 65.3% show a relatively high content

A detailed documentation of the method for preparation of a FOD\VWRYHLVJLYHQLQ)HLJOVWRUIHUí

of coarse material. This may be relevant for the compensation of the high content of swellable clay to avoid cracks and also for reduced elongation during heating. The peak clearly corresponds to the gravel fraction. The grain size distribution graphics do not show an immediate break or a bimodal distribution. Since the material was taken directly from the pit, the addition of material in this sample can be excluded. Generally speaking, this material is much more similar to sample 11748 than it is to samples 11748 and 15412, although the latter two were collected close to one another and look very similar to each other. \*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQWKHȝPDQGȝPIUDF-WLRQVDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶JLYLQJQRHYLGHQFHRIDPL[WXUH


### Bulk mineral analysis

7KH VDPSOH GL൵HUV IURP VDPSOHV DQG LQWKDWWKHmica is only available in trace DPRXQWV )XUWKHUPRUHWKH FRQWHQW RI .IHOGVSDULVPXFK KLJKHULQ VDPSOH PDUNHGLQ 7DEOHZLWK

&RPSDUHGWRPRVWRIWKHRWKHUBasgo-Likir samples, but unlike stove samples 11748 and 15412, the stove clay contains traces of calcite, measured at 3%. Like stove samples 11748 and 15412, this sample does not contain gypsum. Besides proving the content of wellcrystallised kaolinite, several other minerals such as smectite and TXDUW]FRXOGEHGHWHUPLQHG7KH colours are outside the investigated range of %DVJRVDPSOHVDQGDOVRGL൵HUIURPWKHWZRRWKHU stove samples in that they are much brighter. A slight content of hematite may be responsible for some reddish spots within the sample.

Results measured with STA

Â A peak at 526°C points towards a dehydroxilation of kaolinite.

7KHUHVLGXDOPDVVDW&LV

### Clay mineral analysis

The scattered content of clay minerals is similar to stove samples 11748 and 15412. At 57%, the content of swellable clay minerals is the highest compared to samples 11748 and 15412. The kao-OLQLWHFRXOGEHLGHQWL¿HGDVZHOOFU\VWDOOLVHGLQWKHCMA, and was also recognised with the IRS (see Fig. ,56LQWKH\$SSHQGL[&KDSWHU,,,,WLVVLJQL¿FDQWWRQRWHWKDWWKHFRQWHQWRIchlorite in the oven material is also 0%.


%ൺඌඈ/ංංඋíඌඍඈඏൾൺඇൽඉඈඍඍൾඋඒർඅൺඒ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Basgo, collected at two small caves of an app. size of 2 x 2 x 1 m (L/B/H). These caves are located at the foot of the temple hill with the monastery and palace on top, just beside Highway NH1D, on the left side when moving towards Leh. The surface of the cave walls was dark, shiny and showed traces of recent digging. Apparently this material (Fig. 3.38) is still col-OHFWHG IRULWVVSHFLDOTXDOLWLHV ,WFDQEHGXJLQOD\HUVE\EUHDNLQJWKHOD\HUVE\KDQG6DPSOH QXPEHULQWKH¿HOG%\$/\*&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH7KLVFOD\LVNQRZQDV*thabsa*. After ramming DQGFRPSUHVVLQJZDWHULVDGGHG7KHUHDIWHULWLVVDLGWRKDYHWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFRI µVWRQH¶OLNH KDUGQHVV,WLVGL൵HUHQWWRVDPSOHIURPTunlung, which is also known for its use for making ÀRRUV\$FFRUGLQJWRWKHSRWWHUVIURPLikir, this material is used for the production of *tandoor* stoves. It is simply made by covering the inside of metal barrels.

Fig. 3.38 Basgo. Sample 15515. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 8/1 white. Semi-dry 10YR 8/2 very pale brown.

### Grain size distribution

Compared with the *thabsa*VDPSOHVDQGWKHPDWHULDOLVPXFK¿QHUZLWK nearly no sand and gravel and a much higher content of silt and clay. The biggest fraction is medium sand (not including the 0.6% amount of only coarse sand). The median is located at app. PWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH7KHFRQWHQWRIJUDYHOLV and the content of VDQGLV7RJHWKHUHTXDOOLQJWKHVDPSOHVKRZVDYHU\VPDOOFRQWHQW RIFRDUVHPDWHULDO¿QHJUDYHODQGVDQGYHUVXVDYHU\KLJKFRQWHQWRI¿QHPDWHULDOVLOWDQGFOD\ DW7KLVPD\EHUHOHYDQWIRUWKHSURFHVVLQJRIWKHPDWHULDOZLWKWKHDLPWRFUHDWHD¿QHOD\HU important for its later use in the construction of a stove. On the other hand, to avoid shrinkage, DUHODWLYHO\KLJKFRQWHQWRIVLOWLVDYDLODEOH\$WWKHPD[LPXPSHDNFOHDUO\FRU-UHVSRQGVWRWKH¿QHVLOWIUDFWLRQ7KHJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQJUDSKLFVGRQRWVKRZDQLPPHGLDWH break or bimodal distribution. Since the material was taken directly from the pit, an addition of material in this sample can be excluded.


### Bulk mineral analysis

In general the sample shows similarities to the appearance of most of the samples in this region. There is no content of amphiboles and K-feldspar, and only traces of 14Å minerals. Mica, 7Å minerals, phyllo silicates, TXDUW]DQGSODJLRFODVHRFFXULQVPDOODPRXQWVPDUNHGLQ7DEOHZLWK DQGdolomite makes up 2%. The content of calcite was measured at 4% (as shown in Table 3). This value is lower than the average content of calcite measured in this region. No gypsum could be traced. A content of hematite gives this sample a reddish appearance.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA of this sample shows a less scattered content of clay minerals as observed in most other Basgo-Likir samples, and no swellable clay minerals (smectite or vermiculite) can be traced. This SRLQWVWRZDUGVWKHTXDOLW\RIUHPDLQLQJIUHHRIFUDFNVZKHQ¿ULQJ7KHFRQWHQWRIchlorite is the highest for the Basgo-/LNLUVDPSOHVDQGGL൵HUVIURP*thabsa*VDPSOHVDQG from Tunlung and Ne, which show no content of chlorite. On the other hand, kaolinite cannot be WUDFHGZKLFKLVGL൵HUHQWWRWKH*thabsa* samples with a content of kaolinite between 12% and 57%. All three samples used for pottery or the interior panelling of *tandoor* stoves show a content of corrensite, which is a mixed layer mineral of chlorite and smectite, and a marker for these sam-SOHV\$WDSSșWKHFXUYHVKRZVDVPDOOSHDN7KLVSHDNLVDUHVXOWRIWKHZLGHQLQJVZHOOLQJ due to the swellable content, which shifted from the FKORULWHSHDNDWDSSșLQDOHIWGLUHFWLRQ


### %ൺඌඈ/ංංඋíඌඍඈඏൾൺඇൽඉඈඍඍൾඋඒർඅൺඒ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, /LNLU9LOODJHLVORFDWHGDW¶´1¶´(7KLVPDWHULDO)LJLV locally known as *thabsa* (oven clay) under the local term *dzasa* (Tib. *rdza sa*), also pronounced as 'VHVD¶RUµVHUVD¶6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH\$SRWWHUIDPLO\IURPLikir VKRZHGWKHGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIFOD\DQGH[SODLQHGWKHLUSDUWLFXODUXVHV,WZDVH[SODLQHGDVPDWHrial to make a *thab* (Tibetan stove), meant for interior panelling of *tandoor* stoves. Contrary to sample 11752, this material is mixed with coarse material and appears to be ready for application. 7KHXVHGFOD\KDVWRIXO¿OVHYHUDOWDVNVVXFKDVUHVLVWDQFHWRKHDWPRUHRUOHVVQRshrinkage, no FUDFNLQJDQGQRDGGLWLRQRI¿EUHVRURWKHURUJDQLFPDWHULDOV

)LJBasgo. Sample 11751. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 7/2 light grey. Semi-dry 10YR 6/3 pale brown.

#### Grain size distribution

Compared with *thabsa*VDPSOHWKHPDWHULDOLVDOVRYHU\¿QHZLWKMXVWDVPDOODPRXQWRI VDQGDQGJUDYHODQGDKLJKFRQWHQWRIVLOWDQGFOD\ELJJHVWIUDFWLRQ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLV ORFDWHGDWDSSPVLPLODUWRVDPSOHZLWKDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSS 38% of the whole sample, similar to sample 15515 with app. 42%. The content of gravel is 1.8%, and the content of VDQGLV(TXDOOLQJWKHVDPSOHVKRZVDVPDOOFRQWHQWRIFRDUVH PDWHULDO¿QHJUDYHODQGsand), but this content is still higher than sample 15515 with 3.3%. This PD\EHUHOHYDQWIRUWKHSURFHVVLQJRIWKHPDWHULDOZLWKWKHDLPWRFUHDWHD¿QHOD\HULPSRUWDQWIRU its later use for stove construction. On the other hand, to avoid shrinkage, a relatively high content RIVLOWRILVDYDLODEOH7KHPD[LPXPSHDNDJDLQFOHDUO\FRUUHVSRQGVWRWKH¿QHVLOWIUDFWLRQ ZLWKYHUVXVDWVDPSOH7KHJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQJUDSKLFVVKRZDbimodal distribution with a valley between medium sand and medium silt, which may point towards the addition of sand.

The house name of the potter family is Langdopa. The interview with the potter Rigzen Wangyal, his brother Rigzen Angdu and their mother, and Tsering Norbu was held in August 2011 and interpreted by Sonam Wangchuk (cf. Feiglstorfer 2014).



### Grain shapes

The examination of the grain shape shows a continuous change of the dominant rounding from µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶DQGDµEHJLQQLQJURXQGLQJ¶LQIUDFWLRQV!ȝPµDQJXODU¶ZLWKDVOLJKWWHQ-GHQF\WRZDUGVµEHJLQQLQJURXQGLQJ¶LQIUDFWLRQV!ȝPDQGµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶LQIUDFWLRQV! ȝP7KLVIDFWHPSKDVLVHVWKHDGGLWLRQRIsand to the raw material, probably to avoid cracks after drying and during heating (Fig. 3.40).

Fig. 3.40 Shapes of grains in sample 11751. Scaled in millimetre (B/W). 6KDSHRIIUDFWLRQ!ȝPOHIW!ȝPFHQWUH!ȝPULJKW

### Bulk mineral analysis

In general the sample is very similar to *thabsa* sample 15515. Only the 7Å minerals and mica are available in trace amounts, as opposed to the small amount found for sample 15515. The amount of calcite was measured at 12%. The sample has a rather greyish appearance without any traces of a red colouring ferric oxide. The content of gypsum at 12% is rather high and not suitable for the use as a stove or for SRWWHU\ZDUH7KLVUHODWLYHO\ODUJHDPRXQWGRHVQRW¿WLQWRWKHSLFWXUHRI clay used for continuous heating (as is the case with a stove). At temperatures of about 100°C to 110°C, gypsum changes into a hemihydrate, and at a temperature of about 200°C, it changes into an anhydrite. When cooling down, humidity is absorbed and recrystallisation occurs.

Either the explanation given to the author about this material was not correct or the collected sample contained some gypsum or was contaminated with gypsum. Since the other material parameters VHHPWR¿WWRFOD\XVHGIRUpottery or stoves, an unwanted collection of a gypsum contaminated ma-WHULDOVHHPVREYLRXV,QFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIWKLV¿QGLQJIXUWKHUDQDO\VLVRIWKLVVDPSOHLVQHHGHG7KH collection of a new comparable sample from Likir is necessary to verify this examination.

Results measured with STA


### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a less scattered content of clay minerals as observed in most other Basgo-Likir samples, and generally shows similarities to the two other pottery and *thabsa* samples, i.e. 15515 and 11752: Swellable clay minerals and kaolinite are not present, but a big amount of chlorite was determined.


### %ൺඌඈ/ංංඋíඌඍඈඏൾൺඇൽඉඈඍඍൾඋඒർඅൺඒ6ൺආඉඅൾ

#### Sampling point

Ladakh, /LNLU9LOODJHORFDWHGDW¶´1¶´(7KLVPDWHULDO)LJLVORcally known as pottery clay under the local term *dzasa* (Tib. *rdza sa*). Contrary to sample 11751, WKLVLVDQXQPL[HGUDZPDWHULDO6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH Clay used for pottery and for the production of a *thab*.

Fig. 3.41 Likir. Sample 11752. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 10YR 5/1 grey. Semi-dry 10YR 4/1 dark grey.

### Grain size distribution

Compared with *thabsa*VDPSOHWKHPDWHULDOLVDOVRYHU\¿QHZLWKMXVWDVPDOODPRXQWRI VDQGDQGJUDYHODQGDKLJKFRQWHQWRIVLOWDQGFOD\ELJJHVWIUDFWLRQPHGLXPsand. The median is located at app. 2.8 μm, similar to sample 15515 with app. 2.5 μm, and sample 11751 with 3 PWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOHVLPLODUWRVDPSOHZLWK app. 42%, and to sample 11751 with app. 38%. In this sample gravel is not present and only 0.2% of sand versus sample 11751 with a content of gravel at 1.8% and a content of sand at 13.2%. At 0.2% the total amount of coarse material is very low versus 15% for sample 11751. Again a relatively high content of silt at 60.3% is present compared to 46% for sample 11751, and 54.5% for VDPSOH7KHPD[LPXPSHDNDJDLQFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKH¿QHVLOWIUDFWLRQDWFRPSDUHG WRIRUVDPSOHDQGIRUVDPSOH7KHJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQJUDSKLFVVKRZ no valley as in sample 11751. Since the material was taken directly from the pit, the addition of material in this sample can be excluded. According to the results of the grain size analysis, pot-WHU\FOD\VDPSOHVHHPVWREHHTXDOWRpottery clay sample 11751 but without the addition of sand.



### Grain shapes

\*UDLQVKDSHVEHWZHHQȝPDQGȝPDUHGRPLQDQWO\µDQJXODUVKDSHG¶DQGFRQWLQXRXVO\ have the same rounding, indicating no evidence of a mixture.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The results of the BMA are more or less the same as for pottery clay sample 11751. Just the gypsum is missing, which may emphasise the afore-mentioned hypothesis that sample 11751 may have been contaminated with gypsum and was originally similar to sample 11752, i.e. without a content of gypsum. The content of calcite was measured at 8% and a content of dolomite at 2%, as shown in Table 3. A content of hematite gives this sample a reddish appearance.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows again close similarity between sample 11752 and sample 11751. Within the Basgo-/LNLUVDPSOHVWZRIXUWKHUVDPSOHVLHadobe brick from the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLQ %DVJRDQGQHZbrick from Basgo), show similarities to sample 11752. Such similarities are a corrensite mixed layer, no vermiculite and a strongly marked chlorite.


In consideration of the fact that these samples are too coarse, such similarities can also lead to WKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWVDPSOHVDQGERWKVDPSOHVXVHGIRUDGREHbricks, in short mentioned as AB) are useful as SRWWHU\FOD\LQWKHFDVHWKDWWKH¿QHPDWHULDOFDQEHVHSDUDWHG


After analysis, we can state that sample 11752 and 11751, both of which are used for pottery, DUHYHU\VLPLODUZLWKWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHLQJWKDWWKHODWWHUZDVPL[HGZLWKDVPDOODPRXQWRIsand (13.2%) for stabilisation purposes.

### /ංංඋíർඅൺඒඉංඍൺඇൽൺൽඈൻൾൻඋංർ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, /LNLU9LOODJHWKHSLWLVORFDWHGDWDSS¶´1¶´(\$WWKHHQWUDQFHWR the village, a clay pit was dug for the primary use of collecting water and not for the collection of raw material. Since this water hole enabled access to material from the area of the ground water, DVDPSOHZDVWDNHQDQGH[DPLQHG)LJ6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG

Fig. 3.42 Likir. Sample 11763. Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 7.5YR 5/1 grey. Semi-dry 2.5YR 2.5/1 black.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\FRDUVHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHG DWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRIWKHZKROHVDPSOH\$WWKHWRWDO amount of coarse material (gravel and sand) is relatively high. At 22.7%, the maximum peak again corresponds to the medium sand fraction. The grain size distribution graphics show no valley or sharp break. In regard to this grain size distribution, one cannot assume addition of coarse material. A comparison with the samples of the Basgo-Likir group is given below. The results show a close similarity to mixture 8465 from %DVJRZKLFKZDVXVHGIRUPDNLQJWKHÀDWHDUWKroof on the Maitreya Lhakhang.


### Grain shapes

The JUDLQVKDSHVZHUHH[DPLQHGDVµYHU\DQJXODU¶DQGGRQRWJLYHDQ\HYLGHQFHRIDPL[WXUHRI GL൵HUHQWPDWHULDOV

### Bulk mineral analysis

The results of the %0\$¿WLQWRWKHJHQHUDODSSHDUDQFHRIFOD\LQWKHBasgo-Likir region. Compared with sample 8465 (*dzasa* + *thetsa*: ÀDWroof material from Basgo), which shows similarities in JUDLQ VL]H GLVWULEXWLRQ VHHDQDO\VLV EHIRUHWKHUHDUH RQO\ VOLJKW GL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHPLVVLQJ RI 14Å minerals or in the slightly less availability of 7Å minerals and phyllo silicates. The content of FDOFLWHZDVPHDVXUHGDWDVVKRZQLQ7DEOHgypsum and dolomite are not present. The sample material is relatively dark, particularly already appearing almost black in the semi-dry constitution, a possible indicator of organic content.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows with 6% a relatively low content of swellable clay minerals but it stands out with a relatively high amount of illite. The list given below again shows a comparison with samples of the Basgo-/LNLUJURXS7KHVDPSOHKDVZLWKDVLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKDPRXQWRILOOLWHVRPH chlorite and kaolinite, and a small amount of smectite.

140 Chapter III


/ංංඋíർඅൺඒඉංඍൺඇൽൺൽඈൻൾൻඋංർ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, Likir Village, the pit is located some metres beside the water whole, from where sample ZDVWDNHQDWDSS¶´1¶´()LJ%HVLGHWKLVclay pit, adobe EULFNVZKLFKZHUHSURFHVVHG IURPWKLVPDWHULDODUH VWDFNHG6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG Constructive use: Raw material for adobe bricks.

Fig. 3.43 /LNLU6DPSOH Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 7.5YR 7/3 pink. Semi-dry 7.5YR 5/3 brown.

### Grain size distribution

7KHPDWHULDOLVUHODWLYHO\¿QHZLWKWKHELJJHVWIUDFWLRQEHLQJ¿QHJUDYHO7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHG DWDSSPYHUVXVDSSPIRUVDPSOHWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSSRI the whole sample versus 14% for sample 11763. At 10.6%, the total amount of coarse material (gravel and VDQGLVUHODWLYHO\ORZYHUVXVIRUVDPSOH\$WWKHPD[LPXPSHDN corresponds to the coarse silt fraction. The grain size distribution graphics show a bimodal distribution. The addition of coarse material can be excluded regarding this material as raw material WDNHQIURPWKHSLW7KHUDZPDWHULDOVHHPVWREHUDWKHU¿QHIRUWKHSUHSDUDWLRQRIDGREHbricks, which must be the reason for its later mixture with sand.


### Grain shapes

:LWKµYHU\DQJXODU¶VKDSHVWKHJUDLQVKDSHIROORZVWKHUHVXOWREVHUYHGIRUVDPSOHJLYLQJ no evidence for a mixture.

### Bulk mineral analysis

The results of the %0\$ ¿W LQWR WKH JHQHUDO DSSHDUDQFH RI FOD\ RI WKHBasgo-Likir samples. Compared with sample 11763 (adobe brick from Likir), the appearance is similar, although some GL൵HUHQFHVFDQEHWUDFHGcPLQHUDOVDSSHDUDVWUDFHVSK\OORVLOLFDWHVDSSHDULQVPDOODPRXQWV instead of traces, and plagioclase appears in a smaller but still high amount when evaluated against sample 11763. Compared with sample 11763, calcite is not present.

### Clay mineral analysis

The CMA shows a much higher content of swellable clay minerals (smectite with just 35%) than found in sample 11763 from /LNLU6LJQL¿FDQWIRUWKLVVDPSOHLVDFOHDUDPRXQWRILOOLWHQRYHUmiculite, a small amount of kaolinite, and chlorite of a subordinate amount.


In comparison with another type of clay from Likir (sample11752) known as *dzasa* (pottery clay), VDPSOHVKRZVPXFKPRUHVPHFWLWHPXFKOHVVchlorite, more illite and a coarser grain size distribution as shown in a juxtaposition of the grain sizes and CMA of both samples.

\*6'7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSS

\*6'7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSPWKHPIUDFWLRQFRQWDLQVDSS

### /ංංඋíඌൺඇൽ6ൺආඉඅൾ

### Sampling point

Ladakh, /LNLU9LOODJHORFDWHGDW¶´1¶´(7KLVW\SHRIsand (Tib. *bye ma*) can be found close to the pits for *thabsa* sample 11752 (Fig. 3.44). It is locally known as sand for mixing with pottery clay for adobe bricks. For these mixtures not just any VDQGLVXVHGLQVWHDG this VDQGLQSDUWLFXODULVSUHIHUUHG6DPSOHQXPEHULQWKH¿HOG&RQVWUXFWLYHXVH*:* Sand for mixing for pottery ware, and sand to be mixed with clay for adobe bricks.

### Grain size distribution

As 'VDQG¶WKHPDWHULDOLVGRPLQDWHGE\PHGLXPDQG¿QHsand, with the total amount being 74.3%. +RZHYHUDVPDOODPRXQWRIVLOWDQGFOD\LVDOVRSUHVHQW7KHPHGLDQLVORFDWHGDWDSSP the <2 μm fraction contains app. 7% of the whole sample. At 0.6%, the amount of gravel is very ORZ7KHSHDNFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKH¿QHsand fraction. Compared with *thabsa* sample 11752, with which it is originally mixed on site, and *thabsa* sample 15515, with which it is mixed for the test ZLWKLQWKLVVWXG\VHHEHORZWKHVHFRPSDUDWLYHVDPSOHVDUHDOVRUHODWLYHO\¿QHZLWKMXVWDVPDOO content of sand and gravel and a high content of silt and clay. Both samples 11752 and 15515 show their biggest fraction as being medium VDQGDQGWKHLUVPDOOHVWIUDFWLRQDOVRDV¿QHFOD\,Q this relation, the VDQGVDPSOHVHHPVWREHDQDSSURSULDWHFRPSOHPHQWDWLRQ

 <sup>7</sup>KHVDPSOH¶VRULJLQLVGHVFULEHGLQ)HLJOVWRUIHU

Fig. 3.44 /LNLU6DPSOH Sample colour (after Munsell): Dry 5YR 5/3 and 5YR 6/3 olive and pale olive. Semi-dry 5YR 6/3 pale olive.


### Grain shapes

The JUDLQVKDSHVZHUHH[DPLQHGDVµDQJXODU¶DQGGRQRWJLYHDQ\HYLGHQFHIRUDPL[WXUHRIGLIferent materials.

### Bulk and clay mineral analysis

The results of the BMA show traces of mica, small amounts of TXDUW]DQG.IHOGVSDUPDUNHGLQ 7DEOHZLWK
DQGPHGLXPDPRXQWVRIDPSKLEROHVDQGSODJLRFODVHPDUNHGLQWKHOLVWZLWK

 Results of the BMA and of the CMA show close similarities to the clay collected from the water hole.

The clay mineral analysis shows a small amount of VZHOODEOHFOD\PLQHUDOVZKLFKLQÀXHQFHWKH behaviour of the mixture. This may be the reason why potters from Likir prefer this sand. It may also be the suitable material for preparation of a clay plaster. The content of smectite indicates this material being of a rather young genesis. At 4%, the content of kaolinite is relatively small. The content of illite points towards an older material as opposed to young material, which was probably crunched during the Ice Age.


The trace content of FDOFLWHPD\JLYHDQDQVZHUWRWKHFRQWLQXRXVO\UHFXUULQJTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHU calcite was added by humans or if it was an already naturally given component. To get closer to an answer, an observation of calcite as anthropogenically added or naturally mixed is conducted in the following.

### \$ൽൽංඍංඈඇൺඅൾඑൺආංඇൺඍංඈඇඌඈൿඌൾඅൾർඍൾൽൾඑൺආඉඅൾඌ

### 4.1 Behaviour of stove material during heat treatment

*Tandoor* stoves are widely known throughout the Asian continent. Heat is produced with wood or FKDUFRDODQGUHDFKHVWHPSHUDWXUHVRIXSWR&í&.DW]:HDYHU7HPSHUDWXUHV for preparing meat and bread (e.g. Indian *nan* or *chapatti*) must be much lower. Om Gupta (2006: GHVFULEHVWKHKHDWXVHGIRU¿ULQJDclay stove being at a temperature of up to 480°C. Since the temperature has to be kept for an extended period of cooking, a long lasting heat resistance is LPSRUWDQW(VVHQWLDOLVWKHKHDWQRWWKHÀDPHVWKHODWWHURIZKLFKVKRXOGEHDYRLGHGDVPXFKDV possible. Also the design and material of *tandoor*VWRYHVGL൵HUZLGHO\*Tandoor* stoves are popular among members of the Indian army based in Ladakh. The given form is that of a cylindrical oil barrel with the inside coated with clay. According to local saying, before processing of the clay, it LVPL[HGZLWK¿QHsand at a ratio of app. 1:2 (Feiglstorfer 2014: 370).

For a traditional *tandoor*VWRYHWKH¿UHLVPDGHWKURXJKDERWWRPKROH7KHIRRGIRUFRRNLQJLV put into the oven from the top. A traditional *tandoor* stove made of clay is also widely known. In Punjub (e.g.) the tradition of using clay stoves is still vivid, and the same can be said for the Lower Himalayas, e.g. in the area of Manali. Since the practice of preparing *tandoor* stoves in metal barrels is relatively young, the *tandoor* made from an oil barrel can be explained as a composite development of the *tandoor* tradition from other areas of ,QGLD±SRVVLEO\WUDQVIHUUHGWRLadakh E\VROGLHUV±DQGWKHROGLadakh stoves tradition of working with heat resistant clays (*thabsa*).

)RU VDPSOH ZH ¿QG D*tandoor* stove clay mixture with material properties that appear similar to sample 15515 but with a slightly higher content of sand. Since the use of sample 11751 was only uncovered from interviews with locals and not seen when mixed or further processed, WKHIROORZLQJH[DPLQDWLRQVVKRXOGSURYLGHDQLQVLJKWLQWRWKHPDWHULDO¶VVKULQNLQJEHKDYLRXUDW GL൵HUHQWWHPSHUDWXUHVLH&&&DQG& For further comparison, the tests ZLOOEHFRQGXFWHGZLWKWZRGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIVWRYHPDWHULDO*thabsa*):


,QRUGHUWR¿QGWKH ULJKWSURSRUWLRQLQWKHDGGLWLRQRIVDQG IURP/LNLU VDPSOHVRWKDW we achieve a *dzasa* mixture similar to sample 11751, the following experiment was conducted.

The use of a particular clay for coating the inside of an oil barrel was described by locals, and raw material for that SXUSRVHZDVJLYHQWRWKHDXWKRUE\WKHSRWWHU¶VIDPLO\IURPLikir.

 <sup>240°</sup>C was chosen as average cooking temperature, which ranges in a clay stove between 200°C and 240°C. 480°C was chosen as the temperature described by Om Gupta (2006) for a clay oven. 600°C was mentioned by Katz DQG:HDYHUDVDWHPSHUDWXUHUHDFKHGZLWKFRDODQGFKDUFRDO&LVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWZKLFKVLQWHULQJ begins.

144 Chapter III

**Grain size classes**

Fig. 3.45 *Tandoor*VWRYHFOD\6DPSOHUDZPDWHULDOEOXHFRORXULQFRPSDULVRQWRDPL[WXUHZLWKVDPSOH (VDQGJUHHQFRORXU

&RPSDULQJWKHJUDLQVL]HGLVWULEXWLRQVEHWZHHQVDPSOHVDQGWKHPDLQGL൵HUHQFHLV LQWKHIUDFWLRQVVDQGDQGJUDYHOVHH\$SSHQGL[&KDSWHU,,,7KHFDOFXODWLRQVKRZVH൵HFWVRQWKH whole mixture by changing the ratio of these two fractions.


&RQWHQWRIJUDLQVL]HVsand and gravel), same as > coarse silt (in Fig. 3.45 marked with GU):

Â Sample 15515 contains app. 3.3%.

6DPSOHFRQWDLQVDSS

Â Sample 11751 contains app. 15%.

About 12% of the total mass of the whole sample with a grain size > GU has to be added to sample 15515 to achieve a mixture with a grain size distribution in the fractions > GU, similar to sample \$VD¿UVWDWWHPSWHVWLPDWHGRIWKHWRWDOPDVVRIWKHIUDFWLRQV!\*8RIVDPSOH were taken from Likir VDQGVDPSOHDQGDGGHGWRVDPSOH7KHUHVXOWLQJJUDLQVL]H distribution as given in Fig. 3.45 shows a considerable increase of sand, on the one hand, and of VLOWDQGFOD\RQWKHRWKHUKDQG7KHDPRXQWRIVDQGLQVDPSOHPL[HGZLWKVDPSOH ULVHVXSWRZKLFKLVFORVHWRVDPSOHZLWKZKLOHWKHFRQWHQWRIVLOWGHFUHDVHV from 54.5% (in sample 15515) to 27.5% (in the mixture) and the content of clay from 42.2% to 7.7%, respectively. A comparison with the *dzasa* (i.e. sample 11751) shows that the addition of 15% of the total mass of the fractions > GU of sample 15515 was too much and needs to be re-GXFHGWRUHFHLYHDSURSHUPL[WXUHZKLFKLVHTXLYDOHQWWRWKH*dzasa* from Likir.

7KHIROORZLQJMX[WDSRVLWLRQVKRZVWKHGL൵HUHQWshrinkage behaviour for three selected samples, i.e. 15412 (*thabsa* / Tunlung), 15515 (*thabsa* / Basgo) and 15515 + 11751 (*thabsa* / Basgo + sand / Likir as shown in Fig. 3.45). Figs. 3.46 to 3.55 show a juxtaposition of the visual appearance of samples 15412 (*thabsa* / Tunlung) and 15515 (*thabsa* / %DVJRDIWHU¿ULQJ,QWKHIROORZLQJWDEOH FROXPQVPDUNHGZLWK'U\
JLYHWKHYDOXHVIRUdrying shrinkage, and those marked with °C give the values for ¿ULQJshrinkage.

6KULQNDJHFKDQJHRIWKHOHQJWKRIWKHVDPSOHV>FP@ :HW 'U\ & & & & 15515 20 18.10 18.10 18.07 18.00 17.65 15515+sand 20 18.30 18.30 18.30 18.30 18.05 Shrinkage [%] 'U\ & & & & 15412 2.50 2.50 2.75 2.75 2.75 VDQG

Fig. 3.46 (Top left) 15412.8Q¿UHG Fig. 3.47 (Top right) 15515.8Q¿UHG Fig. 3.50 (Third left) 15412. Fired at 480°C. Fig. 3.51 (Third right) 15515. Fired at 480°C. Fig. 3.52 (Fourth left) 15412. Fired at 600°C. Fig. 3.53 (Fourth right) 15515. Fired at 600°C. Fig. 3.54 (Bottom left) 15412.)LUHGDW& Fig. 3.55 (Bottom centre / right) 15515.)LUHGDW&

	-
	-
	-

Front side of the sample (centre) / back side of the sample (right).

4.1.1 Analysis of the shrinkage


In this context, sample 15515 (used for *tandoor* stove) shows no ¿ULQJshrinkage from the point RIEHLQJLQDGU\VWDWHWR¿ULQJXSWR&,QWKLVFDVHWKHPDWHULDOLQDQXQDOWHUHGVWDWHZRXOG already be suitable in view of its shrinkage. In the case of pottery and stove making, this would mean a possible appearance of cracks due to VKULQNDJHGXULQJWKHGU\LQJSURFHVVQRWGXULQJ¿U-LQJ,QWKHFDVHRIPDNLQJDVWRYHWKHVHFUDFNVFDQEH¿OOHGZLWKPRLVWHQHGFOD\WKRXJKWKLVLV not the case for SRWWHU\PDNLQJZKHUHWKHXQ¿UHGpottery ware has to be free of cracks. For that reason, the amount of sand has to be slightly increased. Regarding the shrinkage behaviour in a laboratory test, the addition of sand with 15% of the whole mass of the sample appeared as too much. The content of sand within the sample increases and in contrast the content of silt and clay GHUFUHDVHV±DOOWKHVHGHYLDWLRQVEHLQJWRRKLJKZKHQFRPSDULQJWKHUHVXOWWRWKHYDOXHVJLYHQ in the *dzasa*VDPSOH7KHH[DPLQDWLRQRIYDULRXVPL[WXUHVRIGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIFOD\ZLWK varying amount of sand should be the aim for future tests.


Fig. 3.56 (Top) %0\$RIVDPSOHDWGL൵HUHQWVWDJHVRI¿ULQJ Fig. 3.57 (Below) %0\$RIVDPSOHDWGL൵HUHQWVWDJHVRI¿ULQJ

# ,QIOXHQFHRIPLQHUDOVRQWKHVDPSOHV¶EHKDYLRXUGXULQJILULQJ

 &RPSDULQJWKHGL൵UDFWRJUDPVRIWKHVLQJOHVWDJHVRI¿ULQJWKHIROORZLQJUHVXOWVFDQEHJLYHQ (Figs. 3.56, 3.57).


As is the case for sample 15412 (*thabsa* / 7XQOXQJWKHFRQWHQWRINDROLQLWHLQÀXHQFHVWKHEH-KDYLRXURIWKHFOD\GXULQJ¿ULQJ\$OVRDQLQFUHDVHGFRQWHQWRIIHUULFR[LGHVZKLFKLVSUHVHQWLQ VDPSOHDVKHPDWLWHDQGLQVDPSOHDVJRHWKLWHHQDEOHV¿ULQJDWKLJKHUWHPSHUDWXUHV :LPPHU)UH\HWDOIRUWKFRPLQJ3K\OORVLOLFDWHVDUHGLVSHUVHGDW&ZKLOH.IHOGVSDUUH-PDLQVVWDEOHXSWR&/DVVHU5HGO

A high content of TXDUW]LVDGLVDGYDQWDJHLIWKHVWRYHLVRIWHQ¿UHG'XHWRDQLQFUHDVHLQYROXPH during recrystallisation at the TXDUW]LQYHUVLRQDQLQFUHDVLQJFRQWHQWRITXDUW]QHHGVPRUHVSDFH Both samples (15412 and 15515) contain a small amount of TXDUW]

&RQWHQWRIKXPLGLW\WRUHDFKWKHދQRUPVWLIIQHVVތ The following list shows the content of humidity in the state of its ދQRUPVWL൵QHVVތ.


Fig. 3.58 Sample 15614 is a modern SODVWHUSURGXFHGDFFRUGLQJWR',1UHTXLUHPHQWV7KHFXUYHVVKRZRQHVDPSOH without the addition of whitewash compared with a sample with two layers of whitewash.

### 4.2 Calcite as an anthropogenic or natural factor

\$TXHVWLRQDULVHVZKHWKHUWKHQHFHVVDU\FRQWHQWRIcalcite in a sample is the result of an anthropogenic addition of calcite or naturally given. Reasons for an anthropogenic addition are whitewashing, preparation of the base layer for a mural painting or stabilisation of clay. During analysis, all samples containing possible remains of whitewashing or a base layer for mural paintings were ground together with the whole sample of clay. Meaning, the analysed contents of calcite were part of the whole anaylsed sample, which itself could contain natural deposits of calcite. A content of calcite in a sample of a plaster may originate from a natural deposit but also could be remnants of former whitewashing.

Thus, SODVWHUVDPSOHZDV¿UVWPHDVXUHGZLWKRXWZKLWHZDVKLQJDQGVXEVHTXHQWO\JURXQG and analysed. Thereafter, sample 15614 (1.3 cm thick) was prepared with two layers of a whitewash made of calcite. A comparison of the content of calcite in both samples is given in Fig. 3.58. 7KHPHDVXUHG GL൵HUHQFH RIWKHFRQWHQW RIcalcite between the two samples (with and without whitewash) is app. 1%. Since most of the examined Himalayan layers of plasters are of a thickness of up to app. 4 cm with a layer thickness of whitewash of up to app. 50 μm, the measureable content of calcite of the whole plaster sample shrinks proportionally. On the other hand, we may also state that in general the whitewashing was and still is part of a collective annual renewing SURFHVV±DOVRXVHGLQDULWXDOFRQWH[W±DQGRYHUGR]HQVDQGHYHQKXQGUHGVRI\HDUVPDQ\OD\HUV of whitewash may have been applied but also washed away by precipitation and disappeared as a result of weathering. Nevertheless, according to the given result of this examination, we can state DGL൵HUHQFHRIFDOFLWHEHWZHHQWKHUDZPDWHULDODQGWKHVWDWHRIEHLQJZKLWHZDVKHGZLWKWZROD\ ers of app. 1% for a 1.3 cm thick plaster after graining the whole sample (i.e. clay plaster + two layers of whitewash). This also means that a content of calcite in the range of more than app. 1% on a whitewashed plaster of a thickness of 1.3 cm may already result from a natural deposit in the raw material. As long as we do not separate the calcite layer from the plaster layer below in separate examinations, it is not possible with methods of BMA, Scheibler test and STA, to give a more

)LJ\*0\$6DPSOH Content of well-crystalised kaolinite.

detailed statement regarding the content of anthropogenically applied calcite. As an example, the %0\$RIVDPSOHSLOODUplaster) shows a calcite amount of 11%. In this case we can state that a naturally given content of calcite is existent, but we may not also exclude an anthropogenic addition. White layers on plasters may point towards the use of calcite in a comparably small amount, as shown in Fig. 3.58. Indications for an anthropogenic addition would result from a case, for example, where the lower layer of the plaster is prepared without FDOFLWHDQGWKH¿QHupper plaster layer with calcite. Since some samples of interior plasters originate from ruins without a roof, weathering is a reason for the disappearance of calcite from the surface, even of former interior plasters. Being that weathering due to precipitation is not uniform over the whole surface of the wall, results of mineral analyses may vary.

Gypsum in comparison: In the case of J\SVXPDVDEDVHOD\HUIRUDPXUDOSDLQWLQJWKHLQÀXHQFHRI ZHDWKHULQJLVVLPLODUEXWZLWKDQHYHQTXLFNHUH൵HFW7KLVLVSDUWLFXODUO\WUXHDWUXLQVZLWKRXWDSURWHFtive roof. Since in one liter of water two grams of gypsum can be dissolved, in the case of precipitation the weathering of a J\SVXPVXUIDFHKDSSHQVUDWKHUTXLFNO\

#### 4.3 Content of kaolinite

A relatively high content of kaolinite was stated for the samples from Tunlung and Ne, as shown in the &0\$JUDSKLFV)LJ,QWKH;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQWKHNDROLQLWHSHDNVLQWKHSRWDVVLXPDQG potassium-ethylen curve at about 7Å split up in the DMSO curve. The high peak at 11.2Å (7.8°) points towards the content of well-crystalised kaolinite, and the remaining broader and much smaller peak at 7Å (12,5°) points towards the content of poorly crystallised kaolinite. This could EHSURYHGIRUDOOVWRYHVDPSOHVDQG7KH,56DQDO\VLVFRQ¿UPVWKHX-ray measurement. Figs. 3.60 and 3.61 show the results for the IR-measurements. The four peaks at a ZDYHQXPEHUEHWZHHQDERXWDQGFP-1 are evidence for a well-crystalised kaolinite (cf. YDQGHU0DUHODQG%HXWHOVSDFKHU:LWKWKH,QIUDUHG6SHFWURVFRS\IRS) analysis several other minerals such as smectite and TXDUW]ZHUHDOVRWUDFHG

Fig. 3.60 Sample 11748. IRS analysis. See Fig. 3.61 for the detail of the molecular structure marked by a circle.

Fig. 3.61 Sample 11748. IRS analysis. Detail of Fig. 3.60. Content of well-crystalised kaolinite according to van der 0DUHODQG%HXWHOVSDFKHU

### 4.4 Tables of results

Table 3.2 Grain size classes.


Table 3.3 Results of the bulk mineral analysis.


Table 3.4 Results of the clay mineral analysis.


### 156 Chapter III

### 'ංඌർඎඌඌංඈඇ

5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQ:KDWDUHWKHSDUWLFXODUSURSHUWLHVXVHGWRFDWHJRULVHVSHFLIic commonly used earth building materials? What are the material properties, which VXSSRUWDSDUWLFXODUEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO¶VXVHIRUWKHEXLOGLQJSXUSRVHVPHQWLRQHG"

7KHH[DPLQHGVDPSOHVDUHGHVLJQDWHGIRUVSHFL¿FLQWHULRUDQGH[WHULRUXVH0RVWFRPPRQplasters are made as two-layer plasters with a lower layer (also ground or levelling layer) and an upper plaster layer. Other samples are connected to the use as adobe bricks, the construction of a ÀDWroof, the making of pottery ware, or the creation of a stove. According to the results of this research, the local tradition of Basgo and Likir has a long history and particular types of clay and mixtures for each of these purposes. Also the single sites, where the materials were applied, vary IURPHDFKRWKHUOHDYLQJDUDWKHUFRPSOH[QHWZRUNRIGL൵HUHQWPDWHULDODSSOLFDWLRQV7KHPDLQ general features will be given in the following.

Grain size distribution


### Grain shapes

 2EVHUYHGLVWKHGRPLQDQFHRIµDQJXODUVKDSHG¶JUDLQVZLWKDSDUWLDOWHQGHQF\WRZDUGVµEHJLQ-QLQJURXQGLQJ¶7KLVSRLQWVWRZDUGVDUDWKHUVKRUWGLVWDQFHRIJHRORJLFWUDQVSRUW

Bulk mineralogy


Clay mineralogy

Â In general, the Basgo-Likir samples show a rather high amount of swellable clay minerals (up to 72%), on average between 20% and 40% of the clay fraction. In 23 of the 26 samples swellable clay minerals are present: 23 with smectite and 14 also with vermiculite 18Å. The content of swellable clay minerals is rather high in the interior plaster of the Maitreya Lhakhang, which explains the addition of a high amount of coarse material. In the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJDQG LQWKHµ/KDNKDQJFORVHWRWKHURDG¶WKHFRQWHQWRIswellable clay minerals is less. This explains WKHGL൵HUHQFHLQWKHXVHRIFRDUVHPDWHULDOFRPSDUHGWRWKHMaitreya Lhakhang.


SRLQWLQJWRWKHLUTXDOL¿FDWLRQDVVWRYHPDWHULDOVLQFHDKLJKDPRXQWRINDROLQLWHPDNHVLWPRUH resistant to heat. Concerning this aspect, the samples from Likir and the sample from Basgo, ZKLFKDUHNQRZQIRUWKHLUXVHLQVWRYHFRQVWUXFWLRQGRQRWFRUUHODWHZLWKWKLVPDWHULDOTXDOLW\

Â In general, the high content of chlorite of the Basgo-Likir samples indicates the metamorphic FKDUDFWHURIWKLVPDWHULDOGL൵HULQJIURPVPHFWLWHDQGPLFDSRVVLEO\GXHWRDGL൵HUHQWPRGH of geological material transport. In relation, the stove samples from Tunlung and 1HGL൵HU from the rest of the samples in that they have no content of FKORULWH&RPSOHWHO\GL൵HUHQWWR the stove samples from Tunlung and Ne are the stove and pottery samples from Likir and the sample from Basgo from along the highway, all of which show the highest content of chlorite EHWZHHQDQG

### Organic additives

	- ˰ In the case of the locally available *thabsa* from Likir, a mixture of 2:1 (clay:sand) is recommended by Rigzen Wangyal and his family (the potters from Likir) (Interview Rigzen Wangyal in August 2011). The laboratory test using a ratio of 6:1 (clay:sand) showed that the shrinkage during a three-day drying process was still 8% and that the content of sand needed to be increased for less shrinkage. For potters and *thab* makers, it is essential to

### 160 Chapter III

reduce shrinkage as much as possible during the drying process. The addition of sand IXO¿OVWKLVQHHG\$VWKHH[DPLQDWLRQVKRZVWKH¿ULQJSURFHVVZLWKDPD[LPXPshrinkage of 2% is not as problematic.

˰ )XUWKHUPRUHWKHTXDQWLW\RIZDWHUXVHGIRUSURFHVVLQJWKHFOD\LQÀXHQFHVWKHSURFHVV-DELOLW\DQGTXDOLW\RIWKHUHVXOW(DFKW\SHRIFOD\KDVLWVRZQIHDWXUHV,QWKHFDVHRIWKH FOD\XVHGIRUVWRYHVDYDULHW\EHWZHHQDQGZDVGHWHUPLQHG:LWKWKH*thabsa* from %DVJRVDPSOHWKHKLJKHVWFRQWHQWRIZDWHUZDVQHHGHGLQRUGHUWR DFKLHYHQRUPVWL൵QHVV\$GGLQJDSSRIsand to the raw material changed the need for water to only 27%.

5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQ,IWKHUHDUHDQ\UHJLRQDOUHODWLRQVLQWKHknowledge transfer about a particular material, in what way can they be related to specific locally conventional terms?

For the samples collected in the Basgo-Likir region, several local terms are known. This is primarily the case for raw material and less for processed objects. The mixtures themselves follow ORFDOWUDGLWLRQVZLWKRXWDQ\IXUWKHUFRQFHSWXDOFODVVL¿FDWLRQ7KLVPDNHVWKHLUVFLHQWL¿FGL൵HUHQ-WLDWLRQPXFKPRUHGL൶FXOWWKDQLVWKHFDVHZLWKUDZPDWHULDOVZKLFKFDQQRWEHPL[HGVXFKDV wood or stone.

7KHWHUPVDUHQRWRQO\FRPPRQO\NQRZQORFDOO\*thabsa* (Tib. *thab*³VWRYH´7LE*sa*, "earth") is a Tibetan term and is commonly known in 7LEHW ,WVGHVLJQDWLRQGH¿QHVLWVXVHDQGE\WKDW DSDUWLFXODUTXDOLW\RIFOD\8QWLOQRZQRGDWDKDYHEHHQDYDLODEOHRQWKHHDUOLHVWGHYHORSPHQW RIDWUDGLWLRQDO7LEHWDQVWRYH,WLVUHODWHGWR¿[HGVHWWOHPHQWVDVZHOODVWRQRPDGLFKRXVHKROGV (Interview Tsering Drongshar 2016). The stoves examined by the author were either still in use or demolished. All of them showed reliefs of auspicious Tibetan symbols on their surface. Since the beginning of this tradition, knowledge about particular properties of clay must have been given. \$VVHHQLQWKHSUHFHGLQJDQDO\VLVLWLVGL൶FXOWWRGHWHUPLQHDSDUWLFXODUPDWHULDOTXDOLW\RIFOD\ just by its colour. The *thabsa* samples from Ne, Tunlung, Basgo and /LNLUDUHYHU\GL൵HUHQWLQ WKHLUYLVXDODQGKDSWLFDSSHDUDQFH\$UHVLGHQWRI%DVJRGUHZWKHDXWKRU¶VDWWHQWLRQWRWKHXVHRI the Basgo *thabsa* for making smoke pipes, since this material is heat-resistant. This information shows that technical development was not necessarily restricted to a search for particular stove material but also arose from daily life experiences in the use of heat-resistant materials.

Local traditions in using particular terminologies for clay used as building material are connected to a particular use and to sense-perceivable properties as generally standardisable technical speci- ¿FDWLRQV6XFKVWDQGDUGLVHGVSHFL¿FDWLRQVDUHEDVHGRQWKHHPSLULFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWHFKQLFDO properties of clay. The process of assigning a particular term to a particular type of clay may strongly be shaped by its individual use, for example, by mixing, desludging, adding water or any RWKHUDGGLWLYHV7KLVLQGLYLGXDOXVHFRQQHFWHGZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDOSHUFHSWLRQPD\GL൵HUIRUDFOD\ ZLWKRQHSDUWLFXODUGHVLJQDWLRQE\VKRZLQJGL൵HUHQWPLQHUDORJLFDOSURSHUWLHVZKHQEHLQJGXJDW GL൵HUHQWVLWHV7KLVIDFWWXUQVWKHLQGLYLGXDOSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHFUDIWVSHRSOHLQWRDFHQWUDODELOLW\LQ keeping and adapting technical characteristics.

\$YDULHW\LQXQGHUVWDQGLQJSURSHUWLHVRIRQHVSHFL¿FW\SHRIFOD\LVVKRZQZLWKDFOD\NQRZQDV *dzasa*. The term *dzasa* (Tib. *rdza sa*) is known at various places in Ladakh, like Basgo, Likir or Shey (Feiglstorfer 2014: 372). In Basgo, traces of hematite in this clay are responsible for colouring the temple hill red. According to the Tibetan dictionary (www.thlib.org), various translations for *rdza* are given, such as "clay" or "earthenware" (Jim Valby), "clay-slate" (Ives Waldo) or "terracotta" (Rangjung Yeshe). When speaking about its designation as clay, according to the results RIUHVHDUFKLWFDQEHFDWHUJRULVHGDVFOD\RIDFHUWDLQ¿QHQHVVDQGSURFHVVDELOLW\XVHGIRUDUDQJH RI FUDIWV(DUWKHQZDUHDQGWHUUDFRWWDDUH¿UHGPDWHULDOVDQG VKRZ DWHUPLQRORJLFDO UHODWLRQWR pottery ware. According to Tsering Drongshar, who grew up in Central Tibet (correspondence in March 2016), the Tibetan term *rdza sa*VLPSO\GHVFULEHVDFOD\ZLWKRXWDQ\IXUWKHUVSHFL¿FDWLRQ Contrarily, a clay known as *thetsa* (Tib. *ҲSKUHGVD*), which in the Basgo region refers to a clay collected along the slope of a hill (Feiglstorfer 2014: 373), is not known to Tsering Drongshar.

5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQ,QZKDWZD\DUHEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQG FUDIWV UHODWHG WR each other and how can the gained knowledge be useful for future applications?

In vernacular architecture the use of raw materials follows an economically optimised way of processing and use. Regarding clay in the Himalayas, the raw material is part of the natural environment. Its sustainability after use is given either by its recycling into new objects made of clay or simply adding it to the soil of the surrounding environment. For recycling, it can be mixed ZLWKRWKHUPLQHUDORURUJDQLFPDWHULDOVWRLPSURYHSDUWLFXODUTXDOLWLHV,QWKHFDVHRIplasters, we know of the traditional reuse of sooted kitchen plaster to make ÀDWURRIVZDWHUSURRI,QWKHFDVH of plasters, adobe bricks, and ÀDWHDUWKURRIVWKHUHXVHRIFOD\DWRWKHUEXLOGLQJVLWHVLVDQRSWLRQ ZLWKWKHSRVLWLYHVLGHH൵HFWWKDWWKLVUHXVHPD\UHGXFHWKHPL[LQJH൵RUW,QWKHFDVHRI¿UHGFOD\ such as pottery ware, the crushed objects can be again mixed with clay or reused after grinding them into powder as base material for further mixtures.

This study showed that within craft traditions the same type of clay can be used for various craft WHFKQLTXHV,QWKLVUHVSHFWNQRZOHGJHRIWKHPDNLQJRIDplaster, a clay stove, a ÀDWroof or pottery ware is, on the one hand, connected to the single crafts and allows for the technical understanding of related FUDIWWHFKQLTXHV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLWLVFRQQHFWHGWRDJHQHUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI RSWLPLVLQJPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVDVDJHQHUDONQRZOHGJHIDUEH\RQGDIRFXVRQMXVW one single craft.

7KLVKROLVWLFDSSURDFKLQYHUQDFXODUEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVLVDOVRYLVLEOHLQWKHXVHRISDUWLFXODU terms. *Dzasa*, for example, is used for the raw material of pottery ware, plaster and ÀDWURRIVEXW LQHDFKPHWKRGRISURFHVVLQJLWLVUHODWHGWRDVSHFL¿FWHFKQLTXHRIPL[LQJDQGDSSO\LQJDGGLWLYHV The term *thabsa*IRUH[DPSOHLVQRWRQO\XVHGIRUVWRYHVVRPHVSHFLHVRI*thabsa* are used for making SRWWHU\\$QRWKHUH[DPSOHLVDVSHFL¿Ftype of sand from Likir, which, due to its mineral TXDOLWLHVLVQRWRQO\XVHGIRUpottery but also for making clay stoves and for processing adobe bricks.

'XHWRWKHLUHFRORJLFDOTXDOLWLHVWKHPDWHULDOVPHQWLRQHGDUHKLJKO\VXVWDLQDEOHZKLFKFDQEHD future challenge for their use beyond existing traditions. Changes of traditions are initiated when WKH\EHJLQWREHQHJOHFWHGE\WKHORFDOFRPPXQLW\&OD\WUDGLWLRQVDVZH¿QGWKHPDWBasgo and Likir in Ladakh, are locally determined due to particular locally available material properties and commonly applied processing methods. They are part of the material culture of a local community. Their application to other places or societies is in most cases connected to changes or a loss of these traditions. Learning from traditions means gaining a general understanding of basic SURSHUWLHVRIPDWHULDOVDQGSURFHVVLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQGDSSO\LQJWKLVNQRZOHGJHWRSDUWLFXODUQHZ situations.

)URPWHFKQLTXHVXVHGWRPDNHDÀDWroof or plaster, for example, we may learn about coordinat-LQJGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIFOD\LQVHYHUDOOD\HUVDQGDERXWWKHWHFKQLFDOO\RSWLPLVHGXVHRIDGGLWLYHV However, local recipes are hardly to be transferred from one site to another without any loss but they rather have to be adapted. As far as known, the making of a clay stove in a Tibetan manner is not existent in Western traditions. In this respect, apart from its materiality its social connectivity has to be taken into account. In this regard, the complexity in the interaction of knowledge DQGSUDFWLFHDFFRUGLQJWRWUDGLWLRQDOSDWWHUQVRIWKHXVHRIPDWHULDOVQHHGVWREHTXHVWLRQHGUH searched and be brought into relation to particular local resources and traditions.

### IV. HIMALAYAN COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

This chapter is subdivided into four parts:


### 1. &ඈආඉඈඌංඍൾർඈඇඌඍඋඎർඍංඈඇඌൺൾඇൾඋൺඅඏංൾඐ

The roots of composite constructions extend into the early beginnings of building culture. In this context, wood has played a central role from the very beginning. For early dwellings, wattle with clay or hide as composite structures were used. In Kastoria in West Macedonia, pole foundations of wooden huts with probably wattled walls have been found dating between 4570 and 4330 BCE (Hatzitrifon 2016: 6). According to secondary literature sources (ibid. 8), the use of wattle and daub during the time of ancient Greece is evident. Archaeological remains of stilt houses, e.g. along the lake side of Lake Constance (Fig. 4.1), demonstrate an early use of wattle as LQ¿OOPDWHULDO:DWWOHDQGGDXEFRQVWUXFWLRQVDOVRSRLQWWRZDUGVDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSRVL-WLYHDVSHFWVRIWKHÀH[LELOLW\RIVWUXFWXUHVUHODWHGWRDQHDUO\DZDUHQHVVRIVHLVPLFLW\,QCaral in 3HUXIRUH[DPSOHIURPDERXW%&(ZHNQRZRIDÀH[LEOHWHFKQLTXHXVLQJwattle and GDXEEHVLGHVVROLGVWUXFWXUHVPDGHRIURSHEDJV¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHV±ERWKWHFKQLTXHVVKRZLQJDQ DZDUHQHVVRIVWUXFWXUDOPRYHPHQWV%DFD1HXPDQQDIWHU9DUJDVHWDO)LJ As a kind of wattle and daub, in Venezuela, Uruguay, Colombia, &RVWD5LFDHWFZH¿QGFOD\ pocket-walls in the form of pre-Columbian construction called *bahareque*. This is similar to *quincha* in Peru (Fig. 4.3) and Chile, and similar to *taquezal* in Nicaragua and *tabique* in Portugal. This WHFKQLTXHLVZLGHO\XVHGDQGRFFXUVLQ(XURSHSUHGRPLQDQWO\LQVRXWKHUQDQGVRXWKHDVWHUQ (XURSH,QSDUWLFXODUVXFKXVHLVIRXQGLQQRUWKZHVWHUQ(XURSHLWVYHUL¿DELOLW\VWDUWLQJLQWKHODWH 16thFHQWXU\DQGRQZDUGV+DW]LWULIRQDIWHU6ZLQGHOOVLQWKH,EHULDQUHJLRQ

*Composite constructions* are mentioned as a constructive family and not as a particular single type of construction. Within this family, particular constructive typologies have become evident.

Cf. Langenbach 2000: 5.

Fig. 4.1 Unteruhldingen. Germany. Pfahlbau Museum. Reconstruction of wattled walls of sunken structures of a ODNHGZHOOLQJVHWWOHPHQW±%&(7KHUHFRQVWUXFtion of the WHFKQLTXHLVEDVHGRQUHPDLQLQJLPSULQWV

Fig. 4.2 Caral. Peru. Example of the early use of wattle and daub (*quincha*) (c. 3000 BCE).

Fig. 4.3 (Below) Lima. Peru. *Quincha* wall.

towards the Balkans, and in Turkey (known as *ED÷GDGL*). Wattle was consistently used IRULQ¿OODQGVWLOOLVWRGD\DQGPD\EHFRQsidered as the oldest, most widely used and VWLOOFRPPRQO\XVHGEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXH

The origin of the German word "Wand" for wall as a constructional boundary of a space, which derives most probably from "winden" ³EUDLGLQJ´.OXJHUHIHUVWRDQ early distinction between the light-weight, braided boundary within a load-bearing timber frame construction and a "Mauer" ³ZDOO´ /DW *murus*), i.e. a solid, walled boundary. The development of the wall in general is connected to a technology development, and following the given terminological interpretation, a "Mauer" (solid wall) is generally more rigid than a "Wand" (light wall construction), which does not have high load capacity to tensile stress and torsion. This circumstance may have supported an evolution leading to these two design principles being connected to each other for mutual support.

### 1.1 Timber frame structures

Early evidence for timber frame structures found over parts of the later Turkish territory are timber frame constructions used in the second millennium BCE during the Hittites. Their defence walls are known to have been built with a lower stone part of a height of app. 3 m to 4 m and an upper timber frame construction with adobe bricks of a similar height (Nossov 2008: 16). For residential houses, the use of framework construction on a solid base is reported (Burney 2004: 25). In early Greece until the 1st century CE, the use of timber for construction was common (Hatzitrifon 2016: 8).

 At the *ED÷GDGL* (Turk.) WHFKQLTXHWKHVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHWLPEHUHOHPHQWVLV¿OOHGZLWKOLJKWPDWHULDORUZLWKDNLQG of plaster / OLPHUHQGHULQJRQZRRGHQODWK\*OKDQg]\|UN7KHXVHRIlaths (or reeds) either mounted on one side or on both sides of the vertical timbers is known as *shanashil* (Hatzitrifon 2016: 6).

Fig. 4.4 Herculaneum. Italy. Casa a Graticcio. Photo: Erich Lehner. Fig. 4.5 Quedlinburg. Germany. Post and beam construction (c. mid 14thFHQWXU\&(¿OOHGZLWKwattle and daub. Fig. 4.6 Vacha. Germany. Side wall of a four-storey half-timbered house.

Early discovery of a half-timbered structure is reported in Herculaneum where it was conserved DIWHUWKHHUXSWLRQRI0RXQW9HVXYLXVLQ&()LJ7KLVRoman half-timbered construction was erected without diagonal bracing. Such bracing was also not mentioned by Vitruvius for the *opus craticium*2VWKXHV7KHLQ¿OORIWKLVKDOIWLPEHUHGKRXVHZDVFDUULHGRXWZLWK stones. The word *cratitii* (cf. *opus craticium*) does not refer to the framework of the construction EXWWRWKHLQ¿OODQGZHFDQFRQFOXGHWKDWDwattle and daub construction is being referred to. The half-timbered building in Herculaneum, which was built of stone on the ground ÀRRUDQG half-timbered on the upper ÀRRU2VWKXHV304–306), is an early version of the later development of European *Fachwerk* constructions. During the Roman era, an additional use of diagonal bars was also practised, as found in the upper level of the Diomedes Villa in Pompeii (Hatzitrifon DIWHU\$GDPV

7KH FRPELQDWLRQ RI D VROLG EDVHPHQW DQG DQ XSSHU ÀH[LEOH FRQVWUXFWLRQ EULQJV DQ DGGLWLRQDO VWUXFWXUDOUHTXLUHPHQW,WKDVVHYHUDODGYDQWDJHVIRUH[DPSOHVDYLQJtimber, making the base-PHQW¿UHSURRIRUJLYLQJWKHXSSHUKDOItimber construction a solid basement. On the other hand, the rigid stone construction has to be braced with timber.

In Central Europe, half-timbered construction represents the development of building on stilts (Ger. *Fachwerk*). Between the 13th and 15thFHQWXU\GL൵HUHQWUHJLRQDOEXLOGLQJW\SHVGHYHORSHG (described for the Czech Republic by Kuklik 2008: 5). In Germany, the early form of a half-timbered house is the post and beam construction (Ger. *Ständerbau*) that appeared in Germany at the beginning of the Late Middle Ages (13thFHQWXU\6WHLQHU:HO]100 This technological

Huts in early Rome during Roman rule may have primarily been made of wattle and daub (Edlund-Berry 2013: 413). Already the houses of the early Creatans at Knossos were ZDWWOHDQGGDXEKXWV5LGHU7KHXVH of clay for Greek houses is reported for structures on the Pnyx Hill in Athens during the 5th and 4th century BCE, where walls, ÀRRUVDQGURRIVZHUHPDGHRIFOD\LELG

<sup>100</sup> )RUVWHUUHSRUWVRQHDUO\ZDWWOHDQGGDXEWHFKQLTXHVFRQQHFWHGWRSRVWDQGEHDPFRQVWUXFWLRQVLQ\$XVWULD in the 12th/13th century.

#### 166 Chapter IV

development enabled the increase of the building height (Fig. 4.5). The posts were set on a beam, making them more durable. In Great Britain, two-storey buildings have been reported since the 15thFHQWXU\+DW]LWULIRQDIWHU6ZLQGHOOV

In the north-western part of Austria in the Late Middle Ages and during the Early Modern Age, a development from light constructions (including timber and wattle and daub) to solid structures (including stone and later ¿UHGbricks) took place ()RUVWHUStone constructions for rural KRXVHVDQGDOVRWKHEHJLQQLQJVRI¿UHGbrick constructions can be traced back to the Middle Ages .KQHO±7LPEHUFRQVWUXFWLRQVVWLOOUHPDLQHGFRPPRQLQWKHth century (Forster 

Around the end of the Middle Ages (15th±th century) in Central Europe, the post and beam technology was replaced by a half-timber construction, where at each ÀRRUWKHSRVWVZHUHVHSDUDWHG by horizontal beams (Ger. *Rähmkonstruktion*)LJ (DFKÀRRUZDVD VHSDUDWH VHJPHQW RI construction. This enabled better utilisation of trees and increasing the building height. A common LQ¿OOPHWKRGZDVWKHXVHRIwattle and daub. In addition, adobe brick, ¿UHGbricks and stones were IUHTXHQWO\XVHG7KHFKRLFHRIWKHLQ¿OOPDWHULDOZDVUHODWHGWRWKHH[SUHVVLRQRIVRFLDOVWDWXV

Between the 2nd and the 16th century, for the region spanning over the Balkans and today's 7XUNH\LQVX൶FLHQWVFLHQWL¿FIDFWVDOORZXVRQO\WRVSHFXODWHDERXWWKHWUDQVPLVVLRQRIWKHhalftimber frame construction, e.g. in Constantinople in the 4th, 11th or 13th century as described by Hatzitrifon (2016: 10). Returning to the Roman half-timbered construction, it seems to anticipate a development seen again in the Balkans and the Ottoman region. It remains unclear if transmission of this type of construction had already settled in the Balkans and / or Anatolia before the spread of the Ottoman Empire, or if the main phase of transmission followed the expansion of 2WWRPDQLQÀXHQFH&RQWUDU\WRWKHHDUO\SRVWDQGEHDPGHYHORSPHQWLQFHQWUDO(XURSHWKH Balkan-Ottoman building type shows a solid basement and a half-timbered upper ÀRRUVLPLODU to the house mentioned in +HUFXODQHXP7KHUHIURPWKLVLWLVQRWSRVVLEOHWRH[FOXGHDGL൵HUHQW technical development.

Derivation of the Balkan-Ottoman building type (Figs. 4.7, 4.8) from a post and beam construction is not evident. The half-timbered construction in the upper ÀRRULVLQTurkey known as *KLPLú*<sup>101</sup> (in Macedonia known as *bondruk*102) and is close to what we know in German as *Fachwerk* or in French as *colombage*. The oldest testimonies of this Roman-Balkan-Ottoman building type in Turkey have been found to exist starting in the 17thFHQWXU\\*QD\\$QH[DPSOHLVWKH Sofa Kosku building in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul (Ahunbay 2000). According to historical reports for Istanbul in the 16th century, Hatzitrifon (2016: 11) mentions simple, one-storey houses and representative buildings made of wood besides other materials like stone. In addition, paintings may point towards the use of simple, one-storey buildings in Istanbul and Anatolia during the 16th century, and a common development of the multi-storey type in the 17th century (ibid.). The

<sup>101</sup> &I/DQJHQEDFKE7KH7XUNLVKWHUPGHSHQGVRQWKH¿OOLQJ*KLPLú*IRUD¿OOLQJZLWKPDVRQU\*ED÷GDGL* for D¿OOLQJZLWKEXONPDWHULDO*vrac* in French) and *dizeme*ZKHQ¿OOHGZLWKZRRG*rondins* in French) (Caimi 2006: \$FFRUGLQJWR3ROHWWLWKHNLQGRILQ¿OOFKDQJHVWKHEHKDYLRXURIWKHZDOOUDQJLQJIURPÀH[XUDO to shear predominance.

<sup>102</sup> Cf. Gramatikov 2000: 1.

Fig. 4.7 Safranbolu. Turkey. View over the mostly two- or three-storey *KLPLú* constructions of the city.

Fig. 4.8 Ankara. Turkey. *+LPLú* structure on top of a solid ground ÀRRU

oldest remaining buildings in Kastoria in Greece from the 18th century follow a similar typology with stone walls in the lower level and the upper level constructed with wood (Hatzitrifon 2016: 13).

The vertical structural division is a feature of Balkan-Ottoman buildings from the 17th century RQZDUGV,QWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHth century, not only the ground ÀRRUEXWDOVRWKUHHIDFDGHVRIWKH upper ÀRRUVZHUHHUHFWHGLQVWRQHDQGGRQRWSURMHFWEH\RQGWKHJURXQGÀRRU\*QD\ The ground ÀRRUZDVPRVWO\PDGHRIUXEEOHVWRQHZLWKGUHVVHGVWRQHVUDUHO\XVHG7RGD\DQG since at least the 17th/18th century, this type of solid construction with a half-timbered upper ÀRRU can be found all over the Balkans from Albania in the west and Romania in the north, via Greece, North Africa in the south and Central Asia in the east (ibid. see Map 1). 6\ULDQLQÀXHQFHFDQEH DWWULEXWHGZLWKKDYLQJDVLJQL¿FDQWLPSDFWRQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHV LELG<sup>103</sup>

Moving eastwards into the Himalayas, half-timber frame constructions developed primarily in .DVKPLU\$GDWLQJRIWKHRULJLQRIWKLVWUDGLWLRQLVGL൶FXOWDQGZHFDQQRWH[FOXGHLQÀXHQFHIURP western regions. An early development of timber-framed structures as we know from Europe under the Greek or the Romans is not evident in the Himalayas or the Indian subcontinent. A common use of structural timber started in Kashmir at least in the 12th century CE. King Jayasimha ±DOORZHGWKHFLWL]HQVDIUHHVXSSO\RIIRUHVWZRRGZKLFKLQFUHDVHGWKHFRPPRQXVH of timber for building construction, which peaked between 1420 and 1470 (Kachru, Thapalyal /DQJHQEDFKPHQWLRQVKLVWRULFDOVRXUFHVVXFKDVKalhana in 1148 and Tímúr WKH7iWiULQ&(ERWKRIZKRPUHIHUWRWKHODUJHDPRXQWRI timber constructions in Kashmir DIWHU(OOLRW \$FFRUGLQJWR/DQJHQEDFKWKHWZR YHUQDFXODUPDLQ EXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVLQ Kashmir, *dhajji-dewari* and the *taq,*PD\KDYHHYROYHGPXFKODWHUDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHth century (Langenbach 2015: 84). This seems to be a late dating, in particular for the use of *taq,* for which earlier use cannot be excluded (see below in parts 1.3 and 4 of this Chapter).

<sup>103</sup> \$WWKLVSRLQWZHQHHGWRHPSKDVLVHWKDWZHKDYHWRGL൵HUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQDVWDQGDUGLVHGEXLOGLQJW\SHZKLFKPD\ span over a transnational area and local variations, for instance, due to particular local material resources and climate conditions. For example, the type of timber for Ottoman buildings is addressed to the respective local availability: chestnut at the Black Sea, oak and \HOORZ¿ULQ:HVWHUQDQG1RUWKHUQAnatolia, and cedar, cypress and juniper in Mediterranean areas up to the 7DXUXV0RXQWDLQV\*QD\7KHZLGHVSUHDGXVHRIZRRG VKLQJOHVIRUURR¿QJLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHDYDLODELOLW\RIZRRGLELG

### 1.2 Bracing of solid walls

Structures found in Orchomenos in Greece, which were dated c. 3000 BCE, show a succession RIGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIZDOOVPDGHHLWKHUURXQGRURYDOLQWKHLUJURXQGSODQ5LGHU7KHVH wall shapes oppose an early use of timber-lacing at this time in this region. Throughout Minoan era, timber structural systems were continuously used for about 1,300 years (Tsakanika-Theohari ,QGL൵HUHQWOHYHOVRIWKHZDOOVXQZRUNHGtimber trunks or branches were laid as reinforcement transversally and longitudinally into the wall. This WHFKQLTXHZDVGHYHORSHGGXULQJ the Minoan era with vertical timber components (ibid. 130, 131).

The bracing of solid stone walls is traditionally made with timber lacing,104 and in many cases ring beams are used. A kind of timber lacing is the use of a 'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber construction placed on the wall at a certain height, e.g. on top of each ÀRRUEXWDOVRSODFHGZLWKLQDVWRUH\,W is composed of a pair of runner beams facing the inner and outer surface of the wall. They are connected by wooden cross-pieces, which resemble a ladder (in the following also called "'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing"). 5LQJEHDPVLQJHQHUDOZRUNRQO\LQDIRUFH¿WWLQJPDQQHULQSDUWLFXODUDWWKHFRUQHU MRLQWV7KHH൶FLHQF\RIWKHring beam is substantially increased if it is not only linear along the wall, but covering the whole area on top of the wall. This may be one reason for the development of the 'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing. Moreover, it facilitates the connection of the solid wall portion with the ÀRRUEHDPVRQWRS

Traditionally, the wooden joints were made as pure wooden constructions, e.g. with pegs and lap joints. Early examples of WLPEHUODFLQJPD\GDWHEDFNWR\HDUVDJRLQAnatolia105 (Hughes 2000a). In Akrotiri of Santorin (c. 1500 BCE), an early type of a wooden timber lacing was found 7RXOLDWRV±%XLOGLQJVHDFKZLWKWZRWRWKUHHVWRUH\VZHUHPDLQO\PDGHRIUXEEOH stone, in which horizontal timber lacing made of tree branches with cross-pieces on top had been placed as a kind of 'ODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQ9LQW]LOHRX:HFDQGHVFULEHWKLVFRQstruction as an early form of timber lacing. However, as shown by Vintzileou (2011: 172), several buildings had the horizontal lacing connected to a vertical timber structure and by that formed a framework construction for the reinforcement of stone walls.

Julius Caesar mentions the "Gallic wall", wherein straight beams were placed (with a length of about 12 m) lengthwise connected at a distance of about 60 cm. Distance between the beams was about the same and the beams were held in position by a load of stones on top. Advantages of this WHFKQLTXHDUHLWVVWUHQJWKDVDGHIHQVLYHFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG¿UHVDIHW\UHVXOWLQJIURPWKHKLJKFRQ-WHQWRIVWRQH7KH\*DOOLF:DUVSLFWXUHVRIUHFRQVWUXFWLRQVHH&DLPLDIWHU\*\$5RQGHOHW LQ%DUXFFL

The use of timber in combination with solid structures such as walls and domes is reported from the Roman and Byzantine period. During this time, timber belts were used at the bases of domes IRUVWDELOLVDWLRQGXULQJHDUWKTXDNHV\*DYULORYLþDWDO)RUWKH%\]DQWLQHHUDGL൵HUHQW structures with timber reinforcement have been found (Vintzileou 2011: 172). In this context,

<sup>104</sup> Timber lacing is a horizontal bracing of solid walls (made of, e.g. stone or clay) with wooden elements, beams or scantling, also seen with logs.

<sup>105</sup> Following Hughes (2000a) where no further source for this dating is given.

)LJ%DOGDQ%HUHYHHQ.KLLGMongolia. Vertical and horizontal timber lacing in a solid wall.

Fig. 4.10 Kashmir. India. *Dhajji dewari* (1) and *taq* (2) constructions along the banks of the Jhelum River.

the term *imandosis*106 (*imantodi* after Hatzitrifon 2016: 20), deriving from the Greek language, is XVHG\$FFRUGLQJWRWZRGLFWLRQDULHV±RQHIURPWKHth century and the other from the 10th century ±WKHWHUP*imandosis*LVGH¿QHGDVDW\LQJV\VWHPLHWRWLHtimber components inside masonry construction, arches and vaults using diagonal timber bracing (ibid. 173, 174). An early example of timber lacing is known from Khorezm in Central Asia and dates back to the 8th century CE \*QD\DIWHU<D]LFLR÷OX0XVWDID±107. In the Greek, Balkan and Ottoman constructions, since at least the 18th century, the use of timber lacing is reported for solid ground ÀRRUVPDGHRIVWRQH

Moving eastwards into the Himalayas, early dating for the use of timber lacing is given by 'DUUDJRQ6KHVSHFL¿FDOO\UHIHUVWRRQHFRUQHUHGWRZHUGDWLQJWRWKHth century CE. It is located in the higher reaches of the Nyangchu River of present day Gyamda (Tib. Rgya PGD¶&RXQW\LQEast Tibet. Another early East Tibetan example is found in the chamber of the burial mound M-3 at the burial ground in Reshui. Here, walls in the east and west chambers were made of stone using a kind of 'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing dating between the 7thDQGth century CE (SAM 2004: 63). We can also mention Mongolian sites to show the far-reaching use of timber lacing in solid structures, e.g. at the Baldan Bereeven Monastery in the east of Mongolia ¶´1 ¶´(ZKHUHWKH XVH RItimber lacing in combination with vertical WLPEHUEUDFLQJLQDQHDUWKVWUXFWXUHKDVEHHQREVHUYHG)LJ

Timber lacing in solid walls is traditionally used worldwide in many regions. This building tech-QLTXHLVVSUHDGWKURXJKRXW(XURSHDORQJWKHMediterranean region, the Balkans, Greece across Turkey (here known with the term *hatil*, cf. Langenbach 2002b: 3), North Africa, Syria or Jordania (e.g. used along the inner surface of well-dressed stone walls of Qasr el-Bint in Petra), the mountainous region of Iran (e.g. used in the adobe brick walls of \$E\DQHKDOWP¶´1 ¶´(North Pakistan (here known by the Pashto term *bhatar*FI'LSDVTXDOH0HFFD 2015: 85), Kashmir (here known by the term *taq*) (Fig. 4.10), along the Himalayan region into East Tibet and Mongolia.

<sup>106</sup> Hatzitrifon (2016: 20) mentions the incorporation of Greek terms into Turkish and also the replacement thereof by Turkish terms. This includes a Greek term for "WLPEHUODGGHUW\SHVWUHWFKLQJEDUVLQVWRQHZDOOV´DVȚȝȐȞIJȦįȘ

<sup>107</sup> Günay mentions in his book the place as +DU]HP0UV=H\QHS\$KXQED\ZDV VR NLQGDVWR YHULI\Harzem as Khorezm in Central Asia in an e-mail on Oct. 13th, 2016.

Map 4.1 Core region and extended core region.

GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.


#### 1.3 Composite constructions in the Himalayan region

The core region of further investigation is located in the Himalayas in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh. The expanded core region extends into the adjacent region of North Pakistan, which is included in this study because of essential comparison features, although LWLVDOUHDG\SDUWRIWKH.DUDNRUDPUHJLRQ0DS,QWKHFRUHUHJLRQZH¿QGGLVWLQFWWUDGLtions of composite constructions. In this section, the relevant structures are shortly presented. The composite constructions of the core region are covered in greater detail in the following parts of WKLVFKDSWHU7KHPHQWLRQHGFRQVWUXFWLRQVUHSUHVHQWFRPPRQO\RFFXUULQJFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXHV which should not be understood as exclusively the only types of constructions in these regions. )XUWKHUPRUHGL൵HUHQWYDULDWLRQVRIWKHPHQWLRQHGFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXHVDUHWUHDWHGEHORZ

### 1.3.1 Core regions Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and North Pakistan

The majority of the population in Himachal Pradesh belongs to the *Khash*, whose settlement in the Indo-Gangetic plains dates back to the time before the *Aryans* (Handa 2008b: 137). For WKH KLJK TXDOLW\ZRRGVWRQHFRPSRVLWHPXOWLVWRUH\ FRQVWUXFWLRQWKH*Khash*108 are considered predominant, in particular for the use of the *kath-kuni* composite WHFKQLTXHH[SODQDWLRQRIWKH WHFKQLTXHEHORZ%HIRUHXVLQJWKLVFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXH*Khash* buildings had mainly been made RIZRRG+DQGD2WKHUPDMRUSRSXODWLRQJURXSVLQJammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh are the *Gujjar* (mainly building with clay) and the *Gaddi*, the latter having settled in the Indian mainland since the early Middle Ages (Handa 2008b: 137). The *Gaddi* use the *farque* composite construction WHFKQLTXHIRUWKHLUEXLOGLQJVLELGH[SODQDWLRQRIWKH*farque* tech-QLTXHEHORZLQSDUWRIWKLVFKDSWHU%RWK*Gaddi* and *Khash* constructions are also found with a cantilevered upper ÀRRU

In the Transhimalayan part of Himachal Pradesh (Upper Kinnaur, Lahaul and 6SLWLGHWDLOHGPDS RI.LQQDXU VHH0DS ZH¿QG VWRQHDQGHDUWK EXLOGLQJVZLWKD UHODWLYHO\ VPDOOFRQWHQW RI wood, primarily used as timber lacing. In some areas in Himachal Pradesh, in particular in some parts of the districts Chamba, Shimla, Kullu and Kinnaur, dry stone walls (not as composite) are common due to the availability of river stones and a local scarcity of wood (cf. Sood et al. 2013), although app. one third of Himachal Pradesh is forested (see Map 4.5).

In Ladakh (located in Jammu and .DVKPLUZHSULPDULO\¿QGFOD\DQGVWRQHVWUXFWXUHV'L൵HUHQW WHFKQLTXHVIRUXVLQJµVLPSOH¶timber lacing or 'ODGGHU¶OLNHring beams are known. From Ladakh to 1RUWK 3DNLVWDQ WKH GHVLJQ FKDQJHV ZLWK D VLJQL¿FDQWO\ KLJKHU FRQWHQW RI ZRRG ,Q North 3DNLVWDQZH¿QGFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQVVXFKDV*bhatar,* and *cator and cribbage*, the latter being from a construction-typological point of view related to the *kath-kuni* construction in Himachal Pradesh.

From Ladakh to .DVKPLUDVXEVWDQWLDOFKDQJHRIVWUXFWXUHVLVREYLRXV2QWKHRQHKDQGZH¿QG solid constructions with 'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber constructions (in Kashmir known as *taq*), similar to the *hatil* in 7XUNH\RQWKHRWKHUKDQGZH¿QGKDOIWLPEHUHGEXLOGLQJVLQKashmir known as *dhajji-dewari*), similar to the *KLPLú* in Turkey. Concerning strong similarities between construc-WLRQWHFKQLTXHVXVHGLQKashmir and in 7XUNH\ZHFDQQRWH[FOXGHPXWXDOLQÀXHQFHVRUHYHQD SULPDU\LQÀXHQFHDVDOUHDG\PHQWLRQHGEHWZHHQKashmir and its western regions. The 'ODGGHU¶ OLNHGHYHORSPHQWZKLFKZH¿QGLQKashmir with *taq,* is also evident in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and further east just scattered, rarely as a main building type and often reduced to 'VLPSOH¶timber lacing without the use of pairs of runner beams. The Ottoman-Kashmir halftimber type (*dhajji-dewari*) with diagonal FRPSRQHQWV ¿QGVLWV FRUH DUHDLQWKH +LPDOD\DVLQ Kashmir with some remains of *dhajji-dewari* in Himachal Pradesh and the *rabsey* in Bhutan.

<sup>108</sup> Negi Loktus (2015: 361) gives a vague hypothesis of a possible link between the *ұ.KDVKҲ* and the Tibetan designation of Kashmiri people as *ұ.KDVKHҲ*.

)RUIXUWKHUH[SODQDWLRQVRIWKHPHQWLRQHGWHFKQLTXHVVHHEHORZLQSDUWRIWKLVFKDSWHU

Fig. 4.11 West Bhutan. Located close to Paro along the road to the Tagtshang Monastery. Traditional *rabsey* construction. Photo: Roland Meingast 2016.

Fig. 4.12 Tawang. Arunachal Pradesh. Stone, clay and bamboo mats used side by side.

Fig. 4.13 Rumtek. 6LNNLP0RQNV¶UHVLGHQFHVFORVHWRWKH monastery. The building type is locally referred to *Bhotia* people.

In %KXWDQZH¿QGYDU\LQJDOWLWXGHGL൵HUHQtiated thatched bamboo houses in the south, rammed earth in the west and stone architecture in the east. Stone buildings are made with rubble stone in a random bond. Timber lacing is rather uncommon. Wood is primarily used for the projecting upper storeys, the so-called *"rabsey"* (Fig. 4.11). They are connected to solid subconstructions made of rammed earth or stone. The supporting beams are placed on projecting wooden brackets. The *rabsey* construction is a wooden frame-ZRUNLQ¿OOHGZLWKwattle and daub or wooden panels (cf. Potocnik 2007). A stone building tradition continues in the east of Bhutan in Arunachal Pradesh in Tawang and Bomdilla, ZKHUHEHVLGHVVROLGVWRQHVWUXFWXUHVZH¿QG 'VLPSOH¶ WLPEHU IUDPH EXLOGLQJV ZLWK ZDOOV RIEDPERRPDWV)LJ7KHLUIUHTXHQF\ increases towards Assam.

To the west of Bhutan in Bengal in Kalimpong and the surrounding area as well as in 6LNNLP GL൵HUHQW FXOWXUDO LQÀX-HQFHVPHHW,QWKLVUHJLRQZH¿QGVROLGFRQstructions, mainly of stone, e.g. at religious Tibetan Buddhist structures. Attributed to the ethnic group of the *Bhutia* is a type of building with a ground ÀRRU XVHG IRU VWRUage and made of well-dressed stones, and an upper ÀRRUPDGH RIwattle and daub as a living ÀRRU\$QH[DPSOHLVWKHPRQNကVDFcommodation beside the Rumtek Monastery (Fig. 4.13). Similarly, another example is the nun accommodation near the Ralang Monastery, in which even the upper ÀRRU was partially built in stone, and open wall sections were closed with wattle and daub. Traditional architecture of the *Lepcha*, found in Bhutan, Sikkim and West Bengal in the area of Kalimpong, is a stilt construction on stone bases. The ground ÀRRULV RSHQ DQG the upper living ÀRRULV FORVHG ZLWKwattle and daub panels, similar to *Bhutia* houses.

Fig. 4.14 Lhasa. Tibet. Traditional tech-QLTXHRIVWRQHOD\LQJVKRZQDWWKHShide Lhakhang.

In the timberless West and Upper Tibet regions, stone and earth buildings are prevalent. A variety RIGL൵HUHQWVWRQHERQGVZHUHXVHG7KHUXLQVRIWKHDQFLHQWPRQDVWHU\RIChekha (Tib. Chad kha) in Central 7LEHWDUHDQH[DPSOHRIWKHGLYHUVLW\FISLFWXUHVLQ)HLJOVWRUIHU±7KH ruins of the Shide Lhakhang in /KDVD VKRZW\SLFDOEDQGHG VWRQHPDVRQU\ LELG±7KLV WHFKQLTXHXVHVODUJHPRVWO\GUHVVHGVWRQHVRQWKHRXWHUDQGLQQHUVXUIDFHVRIWKHZDOOVSODFHG side by side in a row in clay PRUWDU)LJ&DYLWLHVEHWZHHQWKHODUJHVWRQHVDUH¿OOHGZLWK smaller stones. At certain vertical distances, cross-stones connect the outer and inner wall shell. The reduction of the cavities to a minimum increases the friction between the stones and by that the ability of distributing pressure within the wall. The use of two shells of stone with a vertical LQ¿OOOD\HUDQGWKHW\SHRIOD\HULQJRIWKHVWRQHVHQVXUHÀH[LELOLW\LQWKHZDOOLQWKHFDVHRIVWUXFtural movements.

The outer surfaces of the walls are inclined, whereby the amount of building material is reduced WRZDUGVWKHWRSZKLFKDOVRUHGXFHVWKHODERXUIRUFHUHTXLUHGWROLIWWKHVWRQHV)XUWKHUPRUHWKH mass of the wall is reduced in the upper part, which is positive in the case of structural movements. The inclination of the wall shifts the centre of gravity of the wall to the inside, which in WKHFDVHRIPRYHPHQWPDNHVRXWZDUGWLOWLQJPRUHGL൶FXOW7KHVHVWRQHVWUXFWXUHVDUHHQWLUHO\ without wood. In contrast, in East Tibet wood is much more common, primarily for timber lacing in stone walls with clay mortar, for WLPEHUIUDPHVRUIRUORJEXLOGLQJV5\VHU

Fig. 4.15 Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. 1 = Wooden wedges as a traditional WHFKQLTXH WR VWDELOLVH ZDOOV 2 = Wooden components destroyed GXULQJWKHHDUWKTXDNHLQ 3KRWR&KULVWRI=LHJHUW

In Nepal, at Newar structures in the Kathmandu Valley, in many cases the outer walls of a house are made of ¿UHGbricks, while the interior structure is divided by timber frames (Tavares et al. 2014: 15). In the case of structural movements, ceiling beams are chocked with wooden wedges (Nep. *chokus*FI%RQDSDFH6HVWLQL)LJ7KHVHwedges secure against slipping out of the hole in the wall. In prestigious buildings, ceiling beams are often placed relatively close to each other (with a distance of app. the width of one beam), whereby a bracing along the ÀRRUVXUIDFHLVLQFUHDVHGFI)HLJOVWRUIHUE,QNepal, timber lacing and ring beams are known by tradition, however, they seem to have a minor role in Newar vernacular buildings. Section drawings of the %DVDQWSXU7RZHUIURP&(/H3RUW±VKRZD vertical and horizontal timber lacing, a characteristic not present in many other buildings of this form. A *Kashia* house in 1HSDOGRHVQRWGL൵HUPXFKIURPD*Khash* House in Himachal Pradesh or Uttarakhand (Handa 2008b: 140). In western Nepal, the use of timber lacing in stone buildings is common. It follows a type also known from East 7LEHW5\VHUDIWHU.OHLQHUW *Khash* people, who still live in Jumla District in Nepal, may have brought composite building WHFKQLTXHVWRNepal.

### 1.4. Diffusion of composite constructions

,QDGGLWLRQWRORFDOGHYHORSPHQWVVSHFL¿FW\SHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQZHUHVSUHDGRYHUORQJGLVWDQFHV The channels of dissemination of composite constructions, in particular half-timber and timberlaced walls that are commonly used over a wide region stretching from the Balkans towards .DVKPLUDUHGL൶FXOWWRGHWHUPLQHDQGFDQKHUHRQO\EHFDOOHGK\SRWKHWLFDO(YHQPRUHVRZH ¿QG VLPLODULWLHVLQWKH PDWHULDOV DQGWHFKQLTXHV XVHG DQGWKLV PD\ SRLQWWRZDUGV D FRPPRQ GHYHORSPHQW RUPXWXDOLQÀXHQFHV ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHPHQWLRQHGW\SHV RIFRQVWUXFWLRQ QXPHUous others, which we have yet to consider, exist in the discussed regions, including monolithic QRQFRPSRVLWHW\SHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQ7KHGL൵XVLRQRIWHFKQLTXHVFDQEHOLQNHGWRGL൵HUHQWSD-UDPHWHUVVXFKDVWUDGHZDURUSHRSOHV¶UHORFDWLRQ/RFDOUHVRXUFHVHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVDQG building traditions are opposed to imported expertise.

Based on the aforementioned historical markers of half-timbered buildings, early roots in a Greek-Roman-Balkan-2WWRPDQFXOWXUDO]RQHFDQEHVHHQZLWKGL൵XVLRQRYHUWKH(XURSHDQDQG Ottoman regions to Kashmir. At this point, strong constructive similarities between Kashmir construction and technical developments to the West can be drawn, such as a particular type of half-WLPEHUFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGPHWKRGVRILQ¿OOWKHYHUWLFDOVHSDUDWLRQEHWZHHQDVROLGJURXQGÀRRUDQG light-weight upper storey or the cantilevered half-timber storeys. Towards the Far East, presently QRGLUHFWLQÀXHQFHFDQEH VWDWHGCentral Chinese timber frame constructions show individual features and point towards a cultural development of its own.

The use of timber lacing in solid buildings in general has a much earlier development than the IUDPHZRUNWUDGLWLRQDQGLWVGL൵XVLRQLVFRQVLGHUDEO\PRUHH[WHQVLYHTimber lacing belongs to a type of construction that spread not only through knowledge transfer, but may have developed as LWZDVORFDOO\DGDSWHGWRVSHFL¿FWHFKQLFDOUHTXLUHPHQWV\$JDLQDFHUWDLQXQLI\LQJFKDUDFWHULVWLF between the 'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing in Kashmir and Western cultures (e.g. Balkans or Turkey) becomes obvious.

The dissemination of knowledge was supported by imperial political structures and ethnic-reli-JLRXVD൶OLDWLRQ7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIGHIHQFHVWUXFWXUHVIRUH[DPSOHZDVFRQFHUQHGZLWKFRQtinuous technical progress (see "Gallic Wall" described afore) as well as the construction of buildings with a claim to represent a higher social status, as related to rulers or religious communities. Belonging to certain population groups and religions may also contribute to such widespread dis-VHPLQDWLRQ\$GL൵XVLRQRIFHUWDLQFRQVWUXFWLYHIHDWXUHVRIidentity by Muslims in the Late Middle Ages can be suspected.

The dissemination process is complex and cannot be reduced simply to a religion as a priority WUDQVSRUWHURINQRZOHGJH)RUH[DPSOHZH¿QGFRQVWUXFWLYHSDUDOOHOVWR,VODPLFNorth Pakistan in Hindu dominated +LPDFKDO3UDGHVK\$FFRUGLQJWRDK\SRWKHVLVE\+DQGDQRVWUXFtural temple existed in the Western Himalayan region up until the 7th century, except possibly several Deva Temples in Kullu. For the ĝDNWL'HYƯ7HPSOHODWHth/early 8th century) in Himachal Pradesh, construction is described as "made by the usual timber-bonding method that combines layers of stone with a framework of wood" and points towards the use of a *kath-kuni* or a similar building WHFKQLTXH%HUQLHU7KH%XGGKLVWWHPSOHRI5LEEDEXLOWLQWKHth/early 10th FHQWXU\.OLPEXUJ6DOWHU/XF]DQLWVIROORZVDW\SHRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVLPLODUWR the *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHIRXQGLQ1RUWK3DNLVWDQWKHVDPHFDQEHVDLGIRUWKH+LQGXLVWLF 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHLQUdaipur in Himachal Pradesh built in the 11th century (acc. to Handa (2006: 180) in the 8th century). The local non-Muslim population of *Khash* primarily propagated the *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHDVLWLVNQRZQLQHimachal Pradesh).110

The Islamisation of Kashmir, which peaked in the 13th to 15th centuries, started in the 11th century during the Lohara-Dynasty. In the 11thFHQWXU\7XUNLVKLQÀXHQFHLQKashmir may have existed. Tunga, who led the war under the Kashmiri ruler 6DূJUƗPDUƗMD±&(ZDVGHIHDWed in 1013 by Turkish troops (Handa 2006: 47). This is evidence of contacts between Kashmir

<sup>110</sup> In Uttarakhand, the *Khashia* could not evolve as had been the case in the rest of the Western Himalayas, which lead to a neglect of the development of wooden architecture (Handa 2006: 47). For further explanations of the WHFKQLTXHVPHQWLRQHGVHH below in part 4 of this chapter.

#### 176 Chapter IV

and western territories. During the foundation of &KDPEDF&(DPL[WXUHRI3UDWLKƗUD Renewal (10th to 12thFHQWXU\DQGWKH.DVKPLULVW\OHLVHYLGHQWLQDUWLVWLFSURGXFWV%HUQLHU 132).

7KHFRQTXHVWRIChamba by .LQJ/DOLWƗGLW\DUXOHG±&(DIWHUWKHUHLJQRI&KDPED¶V King 0HUXYDUPDQ±&(6LQJKSUREDEO\H[WHQGHGLQÀXHQFHWRVRXWKHUQLahaul, Kullu and Kangra by rulers of .DVKPLU¶V.DUNR৬D'\QDVW\%HUQLHUFI+DQGD 104). Muslim rulers followed this dynasty. Because of the increase of the dominance of Muslim culture in Kashmir, Hindu stone carvers had to leave to the Hindu kingdom of Chamba, resulting in a lack of carvers in .DVKPLU+DQGD8QGHU6XOWDQ=DLQXO\$ELGLQ±&( ZRRGHQDUFKLWHFWXUHÀRXULVKHGLQKashmir (Handa 2001: 107). Handa (2006: 26) points towards political and socio-economic factors in Kashmir during the 14thFHQWXU\DVLQÀXHQFLQJWKRVHRI Himachal Pradesh and 8WWDUDNKDQG6SHFL¿FDOO\WKH*kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHZDVRIPRUHVWUHQJWK for defence, and displaced the earlier full-wooden structures. Additionally, an over-exploitation of deodar wood may have caused restrictions to be put into place by the local rulers regarding cutting of deodar trees (ibid.).

At this point of research, we cannot state a primary .DVKPLUDQGRU0XVOLPLQÀXHQFHRQWKH development of the *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHLQHimachal Pradesh. As shown in the following, the *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHVHHPVWREHDORJLFDOFRQWLQXDWLRQLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRItimber lacing in VROLGZDOOVLQ+LPDFKDO3UDGHVK7KLVVHHPVWRGL൵HUIURPWKH*dhajji-dewari* WHFKQLTXHZKLFKKDV LWVHDVWHUQOLPLWRIH[WHQVLYHLQÀXHQFHLQWKH+LPDOD\DVLQKashmir.

,PSRUWDQW IRU GL൵XVLRQ LV DOVR WKH ZLOOLQJQHVV RI WKH UXOLQJ FODVV WR DFFHSW QHZ LQÀXHQFHV Langenbach (2002b: 3) hypothesises that Nepal remained a protected kingdom isolated from FXOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHVIURPWKHOttoman Empire (or earlier Muslim craft traditions, AN), and thus D GL൵XVLRQ RIWKH µODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing was excluded from Nepal. However, we need to consider that Nepal was known for its exchange of various goods and craftspeople already in the imperial period in Central Tibet in the 7th century. Literature sources for Nepal between the 8th and 12th century are very limited. At least in the late 10th/early 11th century, we know that craftspeople from Nepal were in high demand in the Western Himalayas and must have been in contact with craftspeople from Kashmir. Thus at this early time an exchange of the latest technical standards in Kashmir must have existed in 1HSDO2QHRIWKHHDUOLHVWVWURQJHDUWKTXDNHVUHSRUWHGLQNepal RFFXUUHGLQ&(FI3UDGKDQDQGWKHRFFXUUHQFHRIHDUOLHUHDUWKTXDNHVLVOLNHO\7KH TXHVWLRQVVWLOO UHPDLQRIZK\ µODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing was not introduced to a much higher degree into vernacular Newar architecture, and why a WHFKQLTXHXVLQJwedges at the ends of the ÀRRUEHDPVWRVWDELOLVHWKHZDOOVLQFDVHRIVWUXFWXUDOPRYHPHQWVZDVSUHIHUUHG<sup>111</sup>

For Western Gujarat in the Khuch area, where a seismic building culture is also absent, Langenbach EDUJXHVWKDWWKH0RJXOV¶LQÀXHQFHZDVWRRPLQLPDOIRUWKLVVL]DEOH+LQGXUHJLRQ,Q Ahmedabad in Central Gujarat, in contrast, where a timber-composite tradition is existent the period of Islamisation was in parallel to the Ottoman Empire, facilitating cultural exchange.

<sup>111</sup> Research conducted after the 1HSDOHDUWKTXDNHLQUHSRUWHGWKDWwedges and wooden components were strong-O\ZHDWKHUHGDQGKDGORVWWKHLUVWDWLFVWUHQJWK7HOHSKRQHFRQIHUHQFHLQVSULQJZLWK&KULVWRSK=LHJHUWZKR FRQGXFWHGDSRVWHDUWKTXDNHVXUYH\7KLVPD\KDYHVXSSRUWHGWKHFROODSVHRIPDQ\KLVWRULFDONewar structures.

Fig. 4.16 Mandriza. Bulgaria. Adobe brick walls with timber lacing and a projecting upper ÀRRU

Fig. 4.17 Mandriza. Adobe brick walls with 'ODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacing.

### 1.5 Relation between diffusion of composite constructions and seismic culture

6HQVLWLYLW\RIEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQVWRIRUHLJQLQÀXHQFHLVZHOOH[SUHVVHGE\D%XOJDULDQH[DPSOH from the Ottoman period: Mandriza, a village in the far east of %XOJDULDDOWP¶´1 ¶´(ORFDWHGFORVHWRWKHGreek and Turkish borders, gives evidence of a mixture of GL൵HUHQWEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV'XULQJWKHOttoman rule, Albanian shepherds from the south-east of Albania founded this village, following an adobe brick culture (Figs. 4.16, 4.17).112 Until the VWKH\ZHUHVLONIDUPHUVDQGGXULQJLWVHFRQRPLFDOSHDNWKHYLOODJHKDGDERXWLQKDELWants. Today, it is nearly abandoned. Surrounding villages like Dolno Lukovo follow a widespread spread Bulgarian tradition of building with rubble stone in a random bond with 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPber ODFLQJ)LJV,QWHULRUZDOOVZHUHPDGHDVWLPEHUframe constructions with wattle DQGGDXELQ¿OO,QMandriza, in contrast, which is said to be the only Albanian village in Bulgaria, buildings are made of adobe EULFNV±VXUURXQGHGE\YLOODJHVIROORZLQJVWRQHDUFKLWHFWXUH7KLV means that the Albanian settlers may have brought their building traditions with them. However, what remains the same in the neighbourhood is the use of timber lacings, which obviously fol-ORZVDORFDOEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQ6HYHUDORIWKHODFLQJVZHUHPDGHOLNHµODGGHUV¶DVIRXQGLQWKH

 Ad Dolno Lukovo (a stone village): Stone walls are made as double shell constructions with well-dressed outer IDFHVXVLQJVPDOOHUUXEEOHVWRQHVDV¿OOLQJPDWHULDOVWRQHVZHUHFKLVHOOHGRXWRIELJERXOGHUVWKHZDOOWKLFNQHVV LVDSSFPDERXWWKUHHµODGGHU¶OLNHtimber lacings are laid within the height of each ÀRRUZDOOVDUHVWUDLJKW ZLWKZHOOGUHVVHGFRUQHUVWRQHVoak wood is used as structural WLPEHUGXULQJHDUWKTXDNHVDIHZEXLOGLQJVVKRZHG FUDFNVPRVWVXUYLYHGZLWKRXWDQ\GDPDJHWKHWUDGLWLRQRIPDNLQJVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQVHQGHGZLWKWKHEHJLQQLQJ of the socialist era changing to ¿UHGbricks.

 Villages towards the north between Mandriza and Ivanova: The villages contain remaining stone and adobe buildings. Some of the stone buildings show timber lacings, others are built without.

<sup>112</sup> Personal information given by Hristo Peev in Mandriza in December 2014. The following data were collected by WKHDXWKRUGXULQJ¿HOGUHVHDUFK

Ad Mandriza (an adobe village): In earlier days, a centre for education on silk production was situated in %XUVD old buildings were erected in app. the 17thFHQWXU\QHZEXLOGLQJVDURXQG&(WKHZLGWKRIDGREHZDOOVLVDSS FPWKHEULFNVL]HLVDERXW[[FPWKHZLGWKRIWKHEULFNERQGLVHLWKHU[FPRU[FPZLWK DEHGMRLQWRIFPWKHXVHRIring beams as WLPEHUODFLQJLVFRPPRQWLPEHUODFLQJVDUHDSS[FPLQSUR¿OH WKHFRPPRQOHQJWKRIKRXVHVDORQJWKHURDGLVDSSPWRPGXULQJHDUWKTXDNHVEXLOGLQJVVXUYLYHGZLWKRXW VLJQL¿FDQWGDPDJHKRXVHVZHUHEXLOWLQFRRSHUDWLRQRIDOOYLOODJHPHPEHUVQDLOVZHUHIRUJHGLQWKHYLOODJH

#### 178 Chapter IV

Fig. 4.18 Dolno Lukovo. Bulgaria. Stone walls with timber lacing.

)LJDolno Lukovo. Corner half lap joints.

QHLJKERXULQJVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQVRWKHUVZHUHPDGHRIµVLPSOH¶ring beams with just one runner beam. Mandriza is a good example of both the assimilation of a foreign building tradition and the XVHRISURYHGORFDOWHFKQLTXHVLQZDOOVWDELOLVDWLRQ7KLVH[DPSOHLVVWURQJO\UHODWHGWRWKHPDWWHU of timber lacing in regard to structural movements, which have become a part of the traditional knowledge on building WHFKQLTXHLQSDUWLFXODU UHJLRQV ,QFRQWH[WZLWKHDUWKTXDNHHQGDQJHUHG regions, this technical evolution has become part of a seismic culture.

,QDGGLWLRQWR KLVWRULFDO UHIHUHQFHVWRWKHFRUUHODWLRQ RILQÀXHQFHVFRQFHUQLQJHLWKHUWKH GL൵X-VLRQRUWKHLQGHSHQGHQWORFDOGHYHORSPHQWRIWHFKQLTXHVLQGL൵HUHQWSODFHVSDUWLFXODUW\SHVRI FRQVWUXFWLRQPD\KHOSWR¿QGFRQVLVWHQFLHV7KHJOREDO¿HOGRIYHUQDFXODUGHYHORSPHQWDSSHDUV extremely diverse. Considering the aforementioned region spanning from the Balkans to the Himalayas, clear technical measures are present for the strengthening of buildings in the case of VWUXFWXUDOPRYHPHQWV6WUXFWXUDOPRYHPHQWVFDQUHVXOWIURPJURXQGVHWWOHPHQWDQGHDUWKTXDNHV the latter being much more extensive over wide areas. Globally, some regions have been more af-IHFWHGE\HDUWKTXDNHVGXHWRWKHLUWHFWRQLFSUHFRQGLWLRQV'DPDJHVDUHDQHVVHQWLDOSDUDPHWHUIRU WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIEXLOGLQJV,QSDUWLFXODUSHRSOHKDYHOHDUQHGDQGGHYHORSHGIURPWKHH൵HFWV RIHDUWKTXDNHV

7KHGHYHORSPHQWRIDVHLVPLFFXOWXUHLQD൵HFWHGDUHDVDQGRI UHODWHGORFDOEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV is likely. Regarding the aforementioned Balkan-Ottoman-Kashmir-Himalayan zone, connecting SULQFLSOHVRIWHFKQLTXHVXVHGLQDVHLVPLFFXOWXUHDORQJWKHZHVWHDVW]RQHIURPWKHBalkans to the Himalayas become obvious. Several striking coherences are mentioned at this point: The fact WKDWFRPSRVLWHVWUXFWXUHVKDYHEHHQGHOLEHUDWHO\DSSOLHGWRFRXQWHUHDUWKTXDNHVLVVKRZQLQWKH following two examples: 1) After the city of Lefkas in Greece was destroyed in 1825, the British, ZKRRFFXSLHGWKHLVODQG±LQWURGXFHGQHZUHJXODWLRQVZLWKWLPEHUIUDPHGFRQVWUXF-WLRQVZKLFKWRGD\DUHVWLOOLQFRPPRQXVH7RXOLDWRV±\$QRWKHUH[DPSOHLVWKH *Construção Pombalina* (after the 0DUTXLVRI3RPEDOLQPortugal. Knowledge of the development of a timber IUDPHFRQVWUXFWLRQZDVFROOHFWHGIURPWKHVXUYLYLQJEXLOGLQJVRIWKHHDUWKTXDNH and new building rules including a framework construction were established and followed for DERXWHLJKW\\HDUVDIWHUWKHHDUWKTXDNH<sup>113</sup>

<sup>113</sup> 'XULQJWKHPLGth century, these constructions were progressively abandoned and a simple type of this building WHFKQLTXHNQRZQDV*gaioleiros*) developed (Simões et al. 2012).

(DUWKTXDNHVSRVHDZLGHVSUHDGWKUHDWWREXLOGLQJV7RGD\HDUWKTXDNH]RQHVDUHGHWHUPLQHGRYHU WKHJOREHDQGGLYLGHGE\HDUWKTXDNHLQWHQVLWLHV7KHPDS³(DUWKTXDNHGDQJHU]RQHVDURXQGWKH world"114LQFOXGHVDOOHDUWKTXDNHVPHDVXULQJDQGPRUHRQWKH5LFKWHUVFDOHRYHUWKHSDVW \HDUV7KHD൵HFWHGUHJLRQVDUHPRVWO\ORFDWHGLQDUHDVRISODWHWHFWRQLFDFWLYLW\/RRNLQJDWWKH further region adjacent to the Himalayas in a Eurasian context, a zone of strong activity becomes HYLGHQWDIWHU5LFKWHUIURPZHVWWRHDVWDQGIURP,WDO\DFURVVWKHBalkans (to Romania LQ WKH QRUWK FI +ăUPăQHVFX \*HRUJHVFX  Greece, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Himalaya and adjacent regions.

This zone corresponds approximately to the main distribution area of composite structures, i.e. solid walls with timber lacing. +DOIWLPEHUHGVWUXFWXUHVKRZHYHUVKRZDGL൵HUHQWPDLQGLVWULEXtion area, namely across a large part of Europe towards Kashmir. In Kashmir and North Pakistan, ZH¿QGD IRFDOSRLQWRIGL൵HUHQWFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXHVRQWKHRQHKDQGKDOIWLPEHUHGEXLOGings, on the other hand, solid constructions with timber lacing. In further parts of the Western Himalayas (e.g. Himachal Pradesh), the half-timbered building tradition is no longer being practised. With the introduction of the *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHNorth Pakistan and the Western Himalayas show a cultivation of a technical development of a solid wall composite WHFKQLTXH with an extremely high content of timber. In some rural areas, these traditions are still alive.

The Himalayan fold mountains are the largest and youngest mountain range. They developed from the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. These activities are still in progress. The "Seismic Hazard Maps of the World"115 shows the peak ground acceleration (PGA) that a site can expect during the next 50 years with ten percent probability. On the 5-point upward rising scale of WKH³6HLVPLF+D]DUG0DSV´WKH+LPDOD\DVDUHPDUNHGZLWKOHYHO7KHKLJKULVNRIHDUWKTXDNHV in the Himalayas and historical disasters must have been a major reason for the development of certain composite constructions.

+LVWRULFDOVRXUFHVRQ+LPDOD\DQHDUWKTXDNHVLQWKHth century and earlier are scarce. According WR%LOKDPHWDODGMXVWHGE\WKHDXWKRUDFFRUGLQJWR6RRGHWDOJUHDWHDUWK-TXDNHV RFFXUUHG LQ Nepal)116, 1555 (Kashmir), the 16th century CE (Kashmir), 1720 (Kumaon), 1803 (\*DUKZDOLWFDXVHGJUHDWGDPDJHEHWZHHQDelhi and Lucknow), 1833 (Nepal), 1855 (6ULQDJDU %KXWDQ .DQJUD 1HSDO%LKDU \$VVDP (3DWWDQKinnaur and 6SLWLLWFDXVHGGDPDJHHJLQWKHYLOODJHVRINako, Shelkhar and &KDQJR.DUDNRUDP'DUHO7DQJLU.KDQEDUL9DOOH\V8WWDUNDVKLChamoli in Gharwal region), 2005 (Muzzafarabad in Kashmir), and 2015 (Nepal).

<sup>114</sup> Map: *Earthquake danger zones* DURXQG WKH ZRUOG KWWSZZZFEFFDQHZVLQWHUDFWLYHVZRUOGTXDNHV DFFHVV 05/2016.

<sup>115</sup> Seismic Hazard Maps of the World: http://geology.about.com/od/seishazardmaps/ss/World-Seismic-Hazard-Maps.htm#step15, access: 05/2016.

<sup>116</sup> 7KLVVHLVPLFDFWLYLW\LVUHSRUWHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKH\*RSDOUDMEDPVDEDOLD¿IWHHQWKFHQWXU\FKURQRORJ\DQGFDXVHG the collapse of temples and the death of one third of the population (Pradhan 2000).

#### 180 Chapter IV

Certain features such as the use of locally available materials, simple ÀRRUSODQVVPDOOZLQGRZ openings or the use of pure wooden joints are generally part of vernacular architecture and do not necessarily point towards characteristics of a seismic culture. There are some technical features that can be an indication of additional seismic measures, and which may also show up in particular details of construction. Ortega et al. (2015) mention some characteristics of vernacular VHLVPLFUHVLVWDQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVOLNHHOHYDWLRQFRQ¿JXUDWLRQXVHRIWLPEHUelements, connection between structural elements, stabilisation of ÀRRUVDQGURRIVDQGUHLQIRUFHPHQWRIWKHRSHQLQJV Some of these characteristics are explained in the following in relation to the Himalayan regions.

### 1.5.1 Quality of the ground

:LWKLQ DQ HDUWKTXDNH ]RQHWKH FRQVLVWHQF\ RIWKH JURXQGLV VWULNLQJ IRULWV EHKDYLRXU GXULQJ vibrations. It is not an anthropogenic feature, like the following described technical aspects of seismic culture, but a crucial natural circumstance, on which culture concerning developments are based.

'XULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHGXHWRDVXGGHQGLVSODFHPHQWWKHJURXQGDFFHOHUDWHVDQGVKHDUZDYHV (S-waves) and primary waves (P-waves) are produced (Hettler 2000: 407). This happens along the surface and underground, and is followed by accelerating foundations and constructions \*DVSDULQL+RZYLEUDWLRQVGXULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHDUHDEVRUEHGGHSHQGVRQWKHTXDOLW\ RIWKHJURXQGZKLFKLVDQHVVHQWLDOFULWHULRQ IRUWKHLPSDFWRIDQHDUWKTXDNHRQDEXLOGLQJ\$ VRIWVDQG\JURXQGFDQEHUHJDUGHGDVSDUWLFXODUO\FULWLFDO,WFDQOHDGWRYLEUDWLRQDPSOL¿FDWLRQ OLTXHIDFWLRQRUVXGGHQVXEVLGLQJ\$GDP3DXOPLFKO([FHVVLYHYLEUDWLRQVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ FKDQJHWKHEHKDYLRXURIDVRIWJURXQG,WVSURSHUWLHVDUHVLPLODUWROLTXHIDFWLRQ7DEHW

7KHJURXQGGLUHFWO\LQÀXHQFHVWKHEXLOGLQJ¶VIRXQGDWLRQZKLFKLQWXUQKDVWRZRUNDVDVKHDU FRPSRQHQW,QRUGHUWRIRUPDULJLGIRXQGDWLRQSODWHDEHGURFNLVVXLWDEOHDVDVWL൵EDVH6ROLG ÀRRUV KDYH D SRVLWLYH LPSDFW RQ WKH UHVLOLHQFH RI D EXLOGLQJ DJDLQVW HDUWKTXDNH IRUFHV 7KH\ LQFUHDVHWKHUDQJHRIWKHH[FLWDWLRQIUHTXHQF\DQGGLYLGHWKHHQHUJ\UHOHDVHGRQVHYHUDOIUHTXHQ-FLHV,QDUHYHUVHVHQVHWKLVH൵HFWFRXOGEHREVHUYHGLQWKHHDUWKTXDNHLQ0H[LFR&LW\7KH VRIW JURXQGFRQWULEXWHVWRD¿OWHULQJ RI YLEUDWLRQVDQG UHVXOWVLQDQDPSOL¿FDWLRQ RID VPDOOHU IUHTXHQF\UDQJH,QWHUYLHZZLWK\$GDPLQ

In South America and, indeed, in .DVKPLUZH¿QGDVRIWJURXQGDVRSSRVHGWRURFN\PRXQWDLQ JURXQGFI/DQJHQEDFK6FKLFNíDOVRPHQWLRQVWKHJURXQGDVDQLPSRU-WDQWSDUDPHWHULQWKHH[DPLQDWLRQRIHDUWKTXDNHUHVLVWDQFH6SHFL¿FDOO\LQUHJDUGWRHDUWKTXDNHV alluvial ground is ideal for settlement, and uncompressed mixtures of sand and clay problematic. In the Himalayas, as an example, in particular in the Tibetan cultural areas, many of the settlements have been founded on alluvial fans.

### 1.5.2 Structural timber elements

As seen from the previously given overview of composite constructions in the Himalayas, we are basically concerned with two types: 1) solid walls with timber lacing, and 2) half-timber frame constructions. The wood in both applications is characterised by properties such as tensile

VWUHQJWKRUUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWÀH[XUHDQGWRUVLRQ6XFKDWWULEXWHVDUHLQFRQWUDVWWRVRPHRIWKH SRRUTXDOLWLHVRISXUHVROLGZDOOVWUXFWXUHVZLWKRXWWLPEHUlacing.

Timber elements generally behave elastically in a linear direction under alternating loads (Ceccotti, Thelandersson 2000: 3). This is in consideration of failures due to natural defects like knots and also of dissipation energy in areas of the timber components that are perpendicularly compressed LELG\$FFRUGLQJWR&RNFDQGXULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHZH¿QGDFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIWHQVLRQV along the corners.

\$WÀH[LEOHYHUQDFXODUFRQVWUXFWLRQVWKHQDWXUDO IUHTXHQF\PD\EHKLJKHUWKDQWKH VWLPXODWLQJ IUHTXHQF\KRZHYHUKDYLQJERWKHTXDOWRHDFKRWKHUFDQEHFUXFLDOO\LQÀXHQWLDO6FKLFN í6RIWVWUXFWXUHVPD\EH IRUFHGWRWDNHRYHUQDWXUDO IUHTXHQF\ZKLOH ULJLGFRQVWUXFWLRQV VXFKDVHDUWK EXLOGLQJVDUH QRWHQGDQJHUHG E\WKLVH൵HFWDVWKH\ VKDNH UDWKHU TXLFNO\DQG GR not show such clear deformations. Since the direction of acceleration is random, they have to be VWUHQJWKHQHGSURSHUO\ \*DVSDULQL³6WUHQJWKDQG ULJLGLW\DUHOHVVH൵HFWLYHLQRUGLQDU\ DQGXQUHJXODWHGFRQVWUXFWLRQWKDQLVÀH[LELOLW\GXFWLOHEHKDYLRXUDQGFXPXODWLYHQRQGHVWUXFWLYH GDPSLQJ´/DQJHQEDFKE5HJDUGLQJZHDNhalf-timber frame constructions without rigid FRPSRQHQWV/DQJHQEDFKLELGGL൵HUHQWLDWHVEHWZHHQVWUHQJWKDQGODWHUDOFDSDFLW\DQGWDNHV note of their ability to withstand lateral forces for a longer period of time without collapsing (Langenbach 2000: 15). The strong bond between solid structure and timber would suggest using "membrane" instead of "frame" (Langenbach 2015: 87).

Over the course of history, the use of timber constructions has proven to be a common measure LQHDUWKTXDNHSURQH]RQHV\$VDQH[DPSOHLQWKH0DUPDUDHDUWKTXDNHLQWLPEHUelements LQEXLOGLQJVSHUIRUPHGSRVLWLYHO\\*OKDQg]\|UN,QDGGLWLRQVRPHQHJDWLYHDVSHFWVJR along with the use of timber. The higher the content of timber, WKHPRUHIRUHVWODQGLVUHTXLUHGDQG WKHKLJKHULVWKHULVNRI¿UHDQGZHDWKHULQJ+DOIWLPEHUHGKRXVHVDUHIRXQGLQDUHDVZLWKUHODtively high resources of timber117 and not in arid zones. Timber lacing in solid structures, however, is also found in arid zones, e.g. in Ladakh.

+DOIWLPEHUHGVWUXFWXUHVDUHPDGHDVDNLQGRIVWDELOLVLQJDQGÀH[LEOHFDFKH7KHLUFRQQHFWLRQWR supporting constructions such as plinths or VROLGZDOOVDOVRUHPDLQVÀH[LEOH7RDFKLHYHDER[ like structure, ÀRRUV VWUHQJWKHQWKH KRUL]RQWDO VXUIDFH DUHDV DQG GLDJRQDO EUDFLQJV DQGLQ¿OOV strengthen vertical surface areas. Timber lacings in solid walls, in contrast, are held in position by the load of the wall on top, and wall and lacing stabilise each other.

### 1.5.3 Solid walls and timber lacing

One of the essential static tasks of a 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing (known as *taq*, *bhatar*, or *cheol*)118 is its performance as a ring beam, i.e. a kind of belt to hold the construction together in the case of structural movements (Fig. 4.20). Ring beams have to be joined at their corners. Further, as an advantage of 'ODGGHU¶OLNH*taq* constructions, this joint may be connected at each corner at both

<sup>117</sup> Traditions of timber lacing are not dependent on a particular altitude, much more on the availabilty of timber. We DOVR¿QGa timber lacing culture at low altitudes close to sea level, as examples from the Balkans show.

<sup>118</sup> The wooden framework is in Himachal Pradesh also known as *chzalairi* or *patari* (Handa 2008b: 144).

Fig. 4.20 System of ring beams. CAD: Martin Pospichal. Details provided by the author.

IDFLQJUXQQHUEHDPVRIWKHµODGGHU¶,WGRHVQRWDFWRQO\OLQHDUO\EXWRYHUWKHZKROHFRUQHUDUHD 6SHFL¿FDOO\LQWKHFDVHRIDFPVWURQJZDOOWKHUHLVDQDUHDRIDSSPðDWHDFKFRUQHU An advantage of timber runners is the additional and by that increasing ductility that augments WKHFDSDFLW\WRDEVRUEHQHUJ\DQGLQFUHDVHHDUWKTXDNHUHVLVWDQFH/DQJHQEDFKUHIHUULQJWR \*RVDLQ\$U\D

In general, foundations, walls, ceilings and roofs are as much as possible designed as shear components.,QWKHFDVHRIDQHDUWKTXDNHWKLVER[OLNHVWUXFWXUHVXSSRUWVWKHVWDELOLVDWLRQRIWKH ZDOOVLQSRVLWLRQ7KLVPHWKRGUHTXLUHVDQDSSURSULDWHVWUXFWXUDOFRQQHFWLRQRIWKHÀRRUVZLWKWKH VXSSRUWZDOODQGDVWDELOLW\RIWKHZDOOVRQHDFKÀRRU7KHÀRRUEHDPVDWHDFKÀRRUDUHFRQQHFWHG to the ring beams and by that form a reinforced horizontal shear component. For a stable structure, it is important to ensure that ÀRRUEHDPVroof beams, and ULQJEHDPVDUH¿UPO\ERQGHGZLWK each other to absorb the shear forces of the ÀRRUDQGroof in conjunction with the walls. This rigid diaphragm allows the distribution of loads to relatively rigid vertical elements on the basis that the relative rigidity of the vertical and horizontal elements correlate with each other (Ambrose, 9HUJXQ

For ÀRRUEHDPVLQNewar structures, which are often laid rather close to each other, the single parts of the ÀRRURU ÀDWroof form a two-dimensional shear component for strengthening the whole structure.

'XULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHWKHYLEUDWLRQIUHTXHQFLHVRIWKHURRIDQGWKHZDOOVDUHGL൵HUHQWFI0LQNH 7KLVPHDQVWKDWLQWKHFDVHRIDQRQÀH[LEOHMRLQWEHWZHHQroof and walls, additional force is placed on the walls. Their connection should be of such strength that the risk of the walls drifting outwards and causing a collapse of the roof onto the inhabitants is reduced.120 This depends on a proper structural connection of the ÀRRUDQGroof beams with a ring beam. A ring beam is a proper support for the ÀRRUDQGroof beams. For the *kath-kuni*<sup>121</sup> WHFKQLTXHLQHimachal Pradesh or the *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHLQNorth Pakistan, roof beams are integrated into the wall structure and connected to the ring beams. For the *taq* system in Kashmir, ÀRRUEHDPVDUHSODFHG between a double layer of runner beams. Similar is the *dhajji-dewari* construction in Kashmir and the *KLPLú* construction in Turkey. For several examples, the ÀRRUEHDPVDUHVDQGZLFKHGEHWZHHQ WZRUXQQHUEHDPVIDFLQJWKHRXWVLGHRIWKHIDFDGH7KHVHVDQGZLFKWHFKQLTXHVVXSSRUWWKHVWDELlisation of the ÀRRUEHDPVLQSRVLWLRQ

In the case of movements within solid structures, an important aspect for keeping the construction in position is the friction between timber elements and the wall, and the denticulation of these two constructive elements (Gasparini 2000: 2, 3). At various examples in the Himalayas, as shown below, timber lacing was placed in dry stone walls without the use of mortar. According to Minke (2001: 35), it is recommended to cover ring beams, which are best located centrally over the wall, with app. 2 cm of mortar having good adhesion values. In the case of 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacings, which are kept in position by the load of the wall on top, this method seems to not have been of striking relevance in vernacular Himalayan examples.

As we know from 'VLPSOH¶EXLOGLQJVWUXFWXUHVLQLadakh, in the case of solid earth and stone structures, ÀRRUEHDPVDUHODLGLQWRDZDOOQLFKHDQGQRW¿[HGRQDring beam. In some cases within the niche, beams are placed on a supporting stone. One method to reduce the possibility of slipping RXWRIWKHZDOOGXULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHLVWROHWWKHEHDPVSURWUXGHRXWVLGHRIWKHZDOO\$OVRLQWKLV FDVHWKHEHDPVUHPDLQVOLGDEOH7KLVPHWKRGEULQJVXVWRWKHVWUXFWXUDOLQÀXHQFHRISURWUXGLQJ FRPSRQHQWVVXFKDVYHUDQGDVRUXSSHUVWRUH\VDVZH¿QGWKHPLQWKHOttoman architecture, in Kashmir, in Himachal Pradesh, in Gujarat and in Bhutan. In contrast to the mentioned WHFKQLTXH by placing ÀRRUDQGroof beams without using ring beams, protruding constructions are commonly connected to ring beams. These protruding components press onto the structure below and VXSSRUWVWDELOLVDWLRQ/DQJHQEDFKE\$QREVHUYDWLRQPDGHDIWHUWKHHDUWKTXDNHLQ in \*XMDUDWZDVWKDWWKHEXLOGLQJVZLWKEDOFRQLHVZHUHPRUHUHVLVWDQWWRHDUWKTXDNHV/DQJHQEDFK 2002a: 120). This may explain the advantage of beams that extend through the rubble stone walls against joists, which terminate in pockets (ibid.).

Ring beams in stone structures are a common feature throughout the Himalayas. To keep a theoretical box-like structure, the horizontal timber lacing is usually mounted over the entire height

<sup>120</sup> 'XULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHLQUpper Kinnaur and 6SLWLLQVWURQJGDPDJHZDVFDXVHGWRUHVLGHQWLDODQGUHOLJLRXV buildings, including the temple in Nako and structures in Shelkhar and Chango. As locally reported, at the monastery of Shelkhar, due to the drifting outwards of walls, several monks were sepulchered and trapped below the collapsing roof.

<sup>121</sup> *Kath-kuni* (for further explanation see Handa 2006: 102): *.XQƗ* meaning "corner" and *NƗWWK*PHDQLQJ³ZRRG´ WUDQVODWHGDV³IRUPLQJFRUQHUVRIWKHVTXDUHFXWZRRGHQVHFWLRQV´LELGRUPHDQLQJWKDWWKHFRUQHUVZHUHDOOPDGH of wood.

RIWKHEXLOGLQJDWVLPLODUYHUWLFDOLQWHUYDOVVRWKDWWKHPHQWLRQHGEHOWH൵HFWLVDFWLYHQRWRQO\RQ top of the structure, but across the structure. In case of an adobe brick structure (e.g. in Tibet or Ladakh) or a half-timber structure (e.g. in Bhutan or Turkey) on top of a building, the most upper part of the solid structure below is separated from the following upper structure by a ring beam. In contrast, within 'VLPSOH¶adobe brick structures in Ladakh, the use of ring beams is not as common as at stone structures.122 In the aforementioned case of ÀRRUEHDPVZKLFKDUHQRWFRQQHFWHG to a ULQJEHDPLQWKHFDVHRIDQHDUWKTXDNHWKHVLQJOHEHDPVGRQRWJLYHWKHQHHGHGVWDELOLVDWLRQ over the ÀRRUVXUIDFHDUHD2QWKHFRQWUDU\WKH\LQFUHDVHWKHPDVV123 by acting as point loads on the wall construction, resulting in increased vibration of the wall (Interview with Adam in 2004).

For that purpose, in the Tibetan cultural zone, the introduction of a tapering of the outside of walls may have been a result of development. Their load decreases from bottom to top, and by that reduces the load vibrating in the upper section of the building. By shifting the centre of gravity towards the interior due to tapering, the chance of collapse towards the outside is reduced. This tapering also provides improved rigidity in the corners. If the wall were made with the full wall thickness upwards, this would not only reduce the geometric rigidity, but also increase the mass RIWKHZDOODQGWKXVORZHUWKHQDWXUDOIUHTXHQF\RIWKHZDOO7KHVHWDSHULQJZDOOVDOVRLQFUHDVH WKHKRUL]RQWDOULJLGLW\ZKLFKLVDGHFLVLYHIDFWRUIRUWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDQHDUWKTXDNHUHVLVWDQW building. (Interview with Adam in 2004) For early West Tibetan religious adobe brick structures, wall thickness reaches up to 1.3 m with wall inclinations deriving up to 2°.124 In general, for prestigious structures, the thickness is rather high. In contrast, for 'VLPSOH¶YHUQDFXODUWZRVWRUH\ structures, the thickness of the wall is mostly the length of one brick and tapering is not possible. Interior walls are often made as light-weight constructions, e.g. as timber frame constructions with ZDWWOHDQGGDXELQ¿OO7KH\DUHQRWSULPDULO\DFWLQJWRWUDQVIHUORDGOLNHVKHDUZDOOVEXW³DV HQHUJ\GLVVLSDWHUVDQGVZD\GDPSHUV´/DQJHQEDFK

A development in the Tibetan cultural zone, which ignores the aforementioned importance of strengthening corners, are the open corners at rammed earth constructions. At several rammed earth constructions in Spiti and in Central Tibet, rammed earth walls that are part of a simple rec-WDQJXODUJURXQGSODQDUHMXVWµOHDQHG¶WRZDUGVHDFKRWKHULQWKHFRUQHUVZLWKRXWDQ\IXUWKHUMRLQW and by that a gap is left over the whole height of the wall. It remains unclear whether this method is thought to create separation joints. In this case, the mentioned advantages given by the tapering of the wall become evident by pressing the walls together in the corners. In the case that the ÀDWroof collapses, its stabilising load is missing and the walls may collapse easily (see collapsed walls at the Chakyung Babsa Tower in &KHNKDFI)HLJOVWRUIHU

<sup>122</sup> In the Tibetan cultural zone, at adobe brick structures with high social status, such as the main temples at Nako, Tabo and Khorchag, timber lacing is used in the walls. Many of the investigated 'VLPSOH¶ vernacular adobe structures have rather thin walls with the length of a brick as thickness and even no space for timber lacing.

<sup>123</sup> 7KHZHLJKWRIDFPWKLFNÀDWHDUWKURRILVDSSNJPð3UREOHPDWLFIRUWKHVWUXFWXUHGXULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHLV the high mass on top of the building, which results from a continuous addition of earth for the renovation of a roof without exchanging layers.

<sup>124</sup> Wall inclinations of the monastery of 1\DUPDHDUOLHVWSDUWVIURP&(ZHUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHDXWKRUDWWKH TERRA 2016 conference in Lyon.

### 1.5.4 Elevation configuration

\$QRWKHUDVSHFWRIYHUQDFXODUEXLOGLQJVLQHDUWKTXDNH]RQHVLVWKHLUYHUWLFDOVHJPHQWDWLRQEHWZHHQ a solid lower part (higher mass) and a lighter and more detailed upper part (lower mass). Thus, the FHQWUHRIJUDYLW\LVORZHUHGFI'LSDVTXDOH0HFFD\$OUHDG\DWWKH0LQRDQKRXVHZKLFK was made of several storeys, a division of the lower part made of stones and the upper part made of adobe EULFNVLVUHSRUWHG5LGHU,QVHYHUDOHDUO\FDVHV±HJDWOttoman houses before the 17th century or at early :HVW7LEHWDQWHPSOHV±DVLQJOHVWRUH\VWUXFWXUHZDVFRPPRQ ZKLOHDWODWHUPXOWLVWRUH\VWUXFWXUHVZH¿QGWKHORDGRIWKHXVHGPDWHULDOVRIWHQUHGXFHGWRZDUGV the top of the building.

Also in multi-storey buildings125 from the Balkans to the Himalayas, the lower ÀRRULVXVXDOO\ built with the largest mass, in most cases as stone masonry. Such a change between lower and upper ÀRRUVLVDOVR IRXQGDWWLPEHUODFHG VWUXFWXUHVLQ.DVKPLU VHH%KXVKDQ  RULQ +LPDFKDO3UDGHVKVHH'DYHHWDO൵,QPRVWRIWKHVHUHJLRQVWKHVROLGJURXQGÀRRULV preferably built of stone. The lacing is an essential technical marker within this seismic cultural region from the Balkans to the Himalayas. In the case that the solid walls are built of rammed HDUWKDVZHFDQ¿QGLQTibet or Spiti, such timber reinforcement is not common.

The upper ÀRRUVRIWKHOttoman house are built as half-timber structures. Also in Kashmir or Himachal Pradesh, in many cases, timber frame and timber-laced constructions, respectively, are placed on top of a solid basement. According to particular building traditions, the ÀRRUVRQ top of the solid (plinth) structure are built with lighter and handier materials. On the one hand, this reduces the load of the building from bottom to top and facilitates the transport of the material to the upper ÀRRUV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQWKHFDVHRIHDUWKTXDNHVWKHXSZDUGUHGXFWLRQRI WKHPDVVKDVDSRVLWLYHH൵HFWRQWKHYLEUDWLRQEHKDYLRXURIWKHZDOO\$OVRDWPDQ\VWUXFWXUHVLQ Himachal Pradesh, the *kath-kuni* construction was placed on top of one or more storeys made of stone (ibid.). In the Tibetan cultural zone, it is common to place adobe walls on top of solid walls made of stone or rammed earth. In Bhutan, the wooden *rabsey* is set on a solid substructure, also either made of stone or rammed earth. Besides the structure, where a *dhajji-dewari* construction is placed on top of a solid plinth, several *dhajji-dewari* buildings in Kashmir are raised as halftimber structures over the full height of the building. In the case of *taq* constructions, if bigger openings are introduced, they are usually placed in the upper ÀRRUV ,Q VWURQJ FRQWUDVWWRWKH examples using stone for the plinth, in North Pakistan, e.g. at the tower of the Altit Fort or at the Baltit Fort, where the *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHLVDSSOLHGWKHORZHUSDUWRIWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQ is made with a much higher content of timber than the upper part.

### 1.5.5 Material and joints

The use of proper materials and joints is not primarily a statement of a seismic culture, but for YHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUHLQJHQHUDO7KHLUH൶FLHQF\KDVWREHXQGHUVWRRGDVSDUWRIDQHDUWKTXDNH SURRIVWUXFWXUH7KHTXDOLW\RIWKHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO±EULWWOHOLNHPLQHUDOEDVHGPDWHULDOVRUÀH[- LEOHOLNHWLPEHU±LQÀXHQFHVEHKDYLRXUGXULQJDQHDUWKTXDNH:HDNmortar (lime or clay mortar)

<sup>125</sup> This change between solid lower and light upper constructions is related to a change between winter and summer places within residential buildings, as we know this, for example, from 6DIUDQEROXKRXVHVFI%DPPHU

#### 186 Chapter IV

is essential for the transmission of forces into the whole structure (Langenbach 2000:8). For his observations of the architecture of the 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHDWUdaipur in Himachal Pradesh, 1RFFLIQPHQWLRQVWKHXVHRIFOD\mortar and points out its low binding power in WKHFDVHRIDQHDUWKTXDNH

For stone walls, for example as observed at the Old Monastery in Chekha in Central Tibet, clay PRUWDUZDVXVHG1HYH WDONVDERXWWKHXVHRIFOD\LQVWHDGRImortar for traditional Kashmir buildings to enable elastic bonding. With an increasing rigidity of a structure, the ne-FHVVLW\IRUDVWURQJHUDYRLGDQFHRIIUDFWXUHULVHV/DQJHQEDFK\$WÀH[LEOHWUDGLWLRQDO VWUXFWXUHVWKHULJLGLW\RIMRLQWVLVOLPLWHG0LQNH¶VREMHFWLRQLVWKHRIWHQXVHGORZTXDOLW\RIFOD\ mortar. He argues that the typical diagonal cracks result from the use of a poor mortar (Minke 2001: 13). This would be the case when a clay with too low a binding power, e.g. when containing not enough clay minerals, is used. At various Himalayan examples, simple dry stone walls were erected and no mortar seems to have been used. According to Dave et al. (2013: 73), this has been the case at *kath-kuni* constructions in Kinnaur.

6KDNLQJGXULQJDQHDUWKTXDNHD൵HFWVWKHMXQFWLRQVEHWZHHQPDWHULDOVWRDFHUWDLQGHJUHHRIGHformation, followed by a collapse. The vibration period of structures increases with the slenderness of a structure, and the rigidity becomes more important (Cokcan 2001: 47). In particular, constructive joints in the upper storeys are more stressed due to higher shear forces, and the lower weight of wooden ceilings keeps the horizontal shear low (ibid.). The absorption of tensile forces E\ZRRGHQMRLQWVLV RIFUXFLDO UHOHYDQFH7R IXO¿OOWKLV UHTXLUHPHQWWUDGLWLRQDOWHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJZRRGHQFRPSRQHQWVZHUHLQWURGXFHG±IRUring beams, e.g. the use of wooden pegs in combination with halving lap joints, dovetail or mortise, and tenon joints. Since they weaken with age, they have to be maintained and, if necessary, replaced after a certain period.

One possibility of stabilisation would be the use of anchoring devices such as brackets. Such brackets are inserted at the outer wall through the ends of the protruding beam. In this way, EUDFNHWVVHUYHDVDWLHURGDQGPDNHD¿UPFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHroof and the outer wall. This construction WHFKQLTXHFDQEHIRXQGLQVHYHUDOHDUWKbuilding cultures, for example in the mountainous regions of Iran in Abyaneh, in Himachal Pradesh in the Upper Temple at Nako, in the Skurbuchan Temple in Ladakh (Nako and Skurbuchan see below) or at the castle-temple of Shani Maharaj at Kharshali in Uttarakhand (cf. Handa 2008b: Fig. 35).

### 1.5.6 Wall openings

7KHPHWKRGVXVHGIRU¿[LQJZLQGRZIUDPHVZLWKLQPDVRQU\ZDOOVPD\SRLQWWRZDUGVDZDUHQHVV RIVHLVPLFLW\PRUHVRWKHZD\RI¿[LQJPD\EHVXFKDQLQGLFDWLRQ&RQFHUQLQJVWUXFWXUDOPRYHments, each opening is a weak spot, and cracks in a wall often start in the corners of openings. Horizontal components of window frames often project deep into the adjoining brick wall. They DOORZDQH൶FLHQWLQWHUORFNLQJRIWKHZLQGRZPHPEHUZLWKWKHVXUURXQGLQJPDVRQU\DQGSUHYHQW cracks in the corners of the openings in case of movements. Inserting a wooden lintel, which protrudes into the adjacent wall, reduces the transmission of forces in the wall along the edges of the masonry wall opening. Examples of big-sized window frames with horizontal wooden components in the lintel and parapet area developed during the Newar period in Nepal.

Fig. 4.21 Gondhla. Lahaul. Placing wooden window frames in a stone construction with 'ODGGHU¶OLNH timber lacing.

7KLVW\SHRIZLQGRZFRQVWUXFWLRQLVZLGHO\XVHGDQGZH¿QGLWLQVRPH:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQEXLOGings, for example, in the tower of Gondhla in Lahaul, which was built with timber-laced stone walls as opposed to Newar brick walls (Fig. 4.21). Another possibility to reduce cracks in walls along openings is to reduce the size and amount of openings. As an example, early West Tibetan religious structures had only one storey and one door opening, no windows. Openings in solid walls at vernacular structures are in general small, which makes the rooms rather dark. In contrast, openings in half-timber frame structures can be designed larger without interfering with the static system.

### 1.6 Discussion

The :HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DVFDQEHUHJDUGHGDVD³WUDQVLWLRQ´]RQHRIGL൵HUHQWYHUQDFXODUEXLOGLQJ WHFKQLTXHV\$VLJQL¿FDQWSURSRUWLRQDVVXPHVFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQVLQSDUWLFXODUFRPELQDWLRQV of stone / clay and wood, and timber IUDPHVZLWKGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRILQ¿OOPDWHULDO,QSULQFLSOHZH have to distinguish between timber frame constructions and solid walls with timber lacing. These WZREDVLFW\SHVVKRZGL൵HUHQWGLVWULEXWLRQDUHDVDQGKLVWRULFDOGHYHORSPHQWV7KHLUGHYHORSPHQW FDQ JHRJUDSKLFDOO\ RQO\ EHDVVHVVHGDSSUR[LPDWHO\DQGWKH\DUHVXEMHFWWR GL൵HUHQWORFDODQG regional adaptations. Local adjustments are found, for example, in the choice of locally available UDZPDWHULDOV5HJLRQDOFRPPRQWHUPVVKRZWKHHPEHGGLQJRIFHUWDLQWHFKQLTXHVLQWKHUHVSHFtive architecture.

Timber frames already appear as an early development among the Hittites, Greeks and Romans. Wide dissemination took place in Europe, and Asia Minor to Kashmir in the Western Himalayas. The development of solid walls with timber ODFLQJLVPRUHGL൶FXOWWRJUDVS\$JDLQHDUO\GLVFRYeries were made in Greece and in &HQWUDO\$VLD7KHGLVWULEXWLRQLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\RYHUDZLGHDUHD ,WLVIRXQGLQYDULRXVIRUPVRYHUWKHHQWLUH+LPDOD\DV±IURPWKHWestern Himalayas to East Tibet. Timber lacing can be as simple as a crack stopper not being joined at the corners of the building, or technically more elaborated as ULQJEHDPV±HLWKHUZLWKMXVWRQHIDFLQJUXQQHUEHDPRUDVD

### 188 Chapter IV

'ODGGHU¶OLNHring beam. The latter describes a WHFKQLTXHIRXQGRYHUDZLGHDUHDIURPWKHBalkans into the Himalayas. Dominant distribution areas are in the regions of the Balkans, Turkey, Iran, Kashmir, the Western Himalayas and North Pakistan, including Himachal Pradesh in northern India.

The change from single-storey buildings to several storeys is connected to particular technical de-YHORSPHQWVIRUH[DPSOHWKHGL൵HUHQWLDWLRQEHWZHHQDPDVVLYHORZHUEXLOGLQJ]RQHDQGDWLPEHU frame structure in the upper zone. Early examples among the Hittites or Romans show similarities to 'ODGGHU¶OLNHring beams.

&XOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHE\FHUWDLQHWKQLFJURXSVLQFOXGLQJWKHDFFHSWDQFHRIZRRGDVDFRQVWUXFWLRQ material and its release by a ruling HOLWHIRUJHQHUDOXVHKDYHDVLJQL¿FDQWLPSDFWRQWKHVSUHDGRI WLPEHUEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV7KHGLVVHPLQDWLRQLVDFRPELQDWLRQRILPSRUWHGDQGORFDOWUDGLWLRQDO knowledge, as the \$OEDQLDQLQÀXHQFHLQ0DQGUL]DVKRZV:K\FHUWDLQWHFKQLTXHVVXFKDVWKH use of timber ODFLQJGHVSLWHKLJKHDUWKTXDNHKD]DUGDUHQRWURRWHGLQWKHYHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUDO Newar culture remains unclear.

From the Himalayas in the east to the Mediterranean area in the west, there are wide regions exposed to strong seismic activity. Certain extensive constructive developments point to the development of a seismic culture. 7HFKQLTXHVWKDWKDYHDOVREHHQDSSOLHGLQWKHWestern Himalayas are the vertical layout of buildings with a solid lower level and light-weight upper level, reinforcement via timber lacing and ring beams, and integration of ÀRRUEHDPVLQWRWKHZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQ to avoid a drifting outwards of the wall or to withstand tension, shear and torsional forces by appropriate materials and compounds.

### 7ඁൾංආඉඈඋඍൺඇർൾඈൿආൺඍൾඋංൺඅൽංඏൾඋඌංඍඒ

Several parameters, such as topography and morphology, ethnic-cultural aspects, and environment and raw material resources, are strongly involved in the process of determining the vernacular features of a given building. One of the most essential factors is the dependence on local availability of certain materials. In this part (4.2), general aspects of the importance of material diversity and its impact on processes of vernacular architecture, including some Himalayan speci- ¿FDWLRQVZLOOEHGLVFXVVHG

Vernacular architecture in general originates locally and within a certain reachable distance from raw material sources, such as timber, stones, and clay. Considering the available range of materials, constructions are adjusted according to particular local living conditions, like climate, SURWHFWLRQDJDLQVWHQHPLHVVRLOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVHDUWKTXDNHVDQG¿UHRUÀRRGSURWHFWLRQ5XUDO architecture in the Himalayas, in particular in remote areas, is still based on the most essential QHHGVUHVXOWLQJLQUDWKHUVLPSOHDQGIXQFWLRQDOFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHV7KHFRUHPDWWHUIRUGLmensioning the thickness of walls, as an example, is primarily static strength, while heat insulation is subordinate (cf. Künzel 2014: 27). Means of heating are dependent on the heating and cooling phases that result from the thermal conductivity of the used constructions (ibid. 41, 42).

/RFDOPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHVDUHSURFHVVHGLQDPRVWH൶FLHQWZD\DQGWKH\DUHFROOHFWHGIURPFORVH GLVWDQFHV,GHDOO\FOD\LVDYDLODEOHIURPRQH¶VRZQODQGVWRQHVDOVRPD\RULJLQDWHIURPRQH¶V RZQODQGRUDSDUWLFXODUTXDUU\LQWKHFORVHYLFLQLW\lime or gypsum originate from the mountains, and certain organic materials like timber or grass also from places nearby. In Central Tibet the saying *sana dona* (Tib. *sa sna rdo na*) reduces material diversity into two words, and can be trans-ODWHGZLWK³GL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIHDUWKDQGGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIVWRQHV´ZLWK*sana* (Tib. *sa sna*) meaning ³GL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIHDUWK´DQG*dona* (Tib. *rdo sna*) PHDQLQJ³GL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIVWRQHV´7KLVVD\LQJ points towards a traditional variety of building materials and an awareness of material diversity. For each type of stone, one has to know the right place to collect, also to purchase, and to trade it. This ability involves detailed understanding of local structures in all their facets, be it economical, social, technical, etc. If not, building may become more expensive, there may be a misuse of the proper WHFKQLTXHQHFHVVDU\WRSURFHVVORFDOPDWHULDOVRUEXLOGLQJPD\QRWEHDGHTXDWHIRU a particular social status. In this context, a free interpretation may read *sana dona* as expression of a basic understanding of the correlation between the availability of local resources and an HFRORJLFDOVXVWDLQDELOLW\(FRQRPLFFRQGLWLRQVPD\EHYDOLGZLWKLQDFHUWDLQFRPPXQLW\±EHLW DQHLJKERXUKRRGDVHWWOHPHQWRUSDUWLFXODUSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSV±FORVHWRZKDWZHXQGHUVWDQG as "local". In general, regarding a relation between ecological conditions and social organisation, WKHVHUHODWLRQVPD\QRWEHFRPSDUDEOHRYHUFHUWDLQUHJLRQV(ULNVHQ

In traditional belief, materials may be more than simply functional goods. They can be classi- ¿HGDVPDOHDQGIHPDOHZKLFKZHNQRZIURPGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRI*arga* or bricks.126 Furthermore, they may also be respected in a religious context. The Buddhist worship of a *shukpa* tree, which SURYLGHVD KLJKTXDOLW\structural timber, is one example within the Tibetan culture. The term

<sup>126</sup> Personal information on "male and female" bricks given by Tashi Tsering at the IATS conference in Vancouver in 2010.

for the Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara), which is locally known as *deodar,* derives from the Sanskrit term *GHYDGƗUX*, meaning "wood of gods". Such connotations of materials connect them with a certain awareness and respect. The professional processing of particular materials is connected to a particular social status. In Tibetan tradition, the carpenter, for example, belongs to the highest-ranked craft while the blacksmith to the lowest. Not only building material but the whole building process is part of religious life. In Buddhist regions like Tibet, Bhutan or Ladakh as well as in Hindu dominated regions like Himachal Pradesh, a building process takes place under the protection of a local deity.

Not using material that originates from nearby would probably point towards the use of a material in a decorative, technical or functional relation to represent a higher social status. An example of a decorative reason would be the use of particular mineral colours for mural paintings, for example, that have to be brought from other countries like India, Nepal, Tibet or Bhutan. An example of a technical functional aspect would be the use of *arga*VWRQHLQVWHDGRIDFRPPRQO\XVHGÀDWHDUWK roof construction. The use of *arga* as is the case in Ladakh and Tibet means heavier transport over ORQJHUGLVWDQFHVDQGDPRUHFRPSOLFDWHGSURFHVVLQTXDUU\LQJWKLVPDWHULDOWKDQVLPSO\GLJJLQJ IRUHDUWK7KHJDLQIRUWKLVKLJKHUH൵RUWLVORQJHUGXUDELOLW\RIWKHroof related to a higher social VWDWXVFI/HKQHU7KLVEDVLFSUHFRQGLWLRQIRUWKHXVHRIORFDOO\DYDLODEOHUDZPDWHULDO íZKLFKLVLQVHSDUDEO\FRQQHFWHGZLWKSHUSHWXDWLQJRISDUWLFXODUWUDGLWLRQV±LQWHUIHUHVZLWKWKH need to overcome uneconomically long distances with high loads. In the context of representing D KLJKHU VRFLDO VWDWXVLQFUHDVHG H൵RUWLQ RUJDQLVLQJ EXLOGLQJPDWHULDO DFURVVORQJHU GLVWDQFHV ZRXOGPHDQDGL൵HUHQWLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKRVHRIDFRPPRQRUORZHUVRFLDOVWDWXVDQGWKRVHRID higher social class. In earlier days, *arga*ZDV±DQGHYHQLQUHPRWH+LPDOD\DQDUHDVVWLOOLV±HLWKHU transported on the backs of carriers or with the help of animals. Long-distance transport to Ladakh and Tibet of *arga*VWRQHVDQGSURSHUKLJKTXDOLW\WLPEHUVXFKDVcedar, was primarily conducted by yaks. In the case of buildings representing a higher social status, such as monasteries, higher UHTXLUHPHQWVLQWKHTXDOLW\RIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOLQFUHDVHGWKHOHQJWKRIWUDQVSRUWGLVWDQFH+DYLQJ WKH¿QDQFLDOPHDQVWRD൵RUGVXFKWUDQVSRUWZDVEH\RQGWKHPHDQVRIDVLPSOHIDUPHUZKRZDV dependent on nearby resources of building material. In breaking the forces of dependence on local products and customers, a further step is the use of motor ability going hand in hand with the easier availability of goods from an external market (cf. Feiglstorfer 2012a: 3). Thus, reliance on locally available building material was reduced. In this regard, motorised transport assistance facilitated a termination of the concept of pre-modernity127.

An early example from the late 10th century CE in Ladakh of acting economically is provided by one of the three earliest monasteries of West Tibet located in Nyarma in Ladakh. In the course of a study at the IAG / BOKU it was proven that the clay used for the entire construction of the monastery was collected nearby, even for a building of such high social status. With the thus obtained clay, bricks were produced with the minimum amount of additives possible. The material was even ideal for use as a plaster ground layer. At this example, only the upper plaster layer was either sieved or desludged. Both methods do not need any addition of a second material, only the

<sup>127</sup> 7KHGHOLPLWDWLRQLWVHOIRIµPRGHUQ¶DQGµSUHPRGHUQ¶DFFRUGLQJWRWKH4XHUHOOHGHV\$QFLHQVHWGHV0RGHUQHV LVVWLOOUHODWHGWRDQFLHQWWLPHVZKLOHLQODWHUXVHVLQFHWKHVHFRQGKDOIRIWKHth century, the term *modern* has VWDUWHGWREHFRPPRQO\XVHGLQ(XURSH%DUQDUG6SHQFHU

VHSDUDWLRQRI¿QHIURPFRDUVHPDWHULDO:LWKWKLVVHHPLQJO\VLPSOHDSSURDFKDUDWKHUHFRQRPLF DQGPDWHULDOH൶FLHQWSURFHGXUHZDVSRVVLEOH)XUWKHUDUDWKHUKLJKNQRZOHGJHRIFOD\ZLWKLQDQ economical as well as ecological context becomes obvious.

7KLV LQWHUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ ORFDO PDWHULDO UHVRXUFHV DQG DSSOLHG WHFKQLTXHV PDUNV WKH NLQG RI construction used and the choice of material within composite constructions. There are several SDUDPHWHUVWKDWGH¿QHWKHDYDLODELOLW\RIFHUWDLQQDWXUDOPDWHULDOVOLNHDOWLWXGHDQGFOLPDWHDVZHOO as vegetation and geological zones, which are up to a certain point interrelated with each other. 7KHVHJHQHUDOLVLQJVWDWHPHQWVDUHH[SODLQHGLQGHWDLOLQSDUWRIWKLVFKDSWHUDQGWKHH൵HFWVRI changes of these parameters on the particular local material composition are analysed in part 4 of this chapter.

Workers are in a vernacular context predominantly relatives, neighbours and as much as possible people out of the local context. In a modernised context they become predominantly paid workers from outside the vernacular community. It is relevant if a personal relationship exists between ZRUNHUVDQGKRXVHRZQHUVLQWKDWWKH\PD\VHHWKHLUSHUVRQDOH൵RUWWRSURGXFHDKLJKTXDOLW\ SURGXFW DV DQ KRQRXU ,Q D YHUQDFXODU FRPPXQLW\ORFDO EXLOGHUVZLWK VSHFL¿F NQRZOHGJH DQG LQWHUHVWLQFHUWDLQWHFKQLTXHVVXFKDVVWRQHFXWWLQJPDVRQU\RUFDUSHQWU\DQGDOVRSHRSOHZLWKD related profession share their skills with relatives, friends and those related to a certain local community. In remote Himalayan areas, people have to cooperate on the building site, and this is only SRVVLEOHDWVSHFL¿FWLPHVLQWKH\HDUVLQFHPDQ\RIWKHODERXUHUVDUHSULPDULO\IDUPHUV7KHLU\HDU is structured by the seasons and related social events. For example, for a traditional earth roof of a residential building in +LPDFKDO3UDGHVKZHFDQ¿QGXSWRWZHQW\SHRSOHRQWKHroof preparing insulation or thereafter compressing the clay, similar to the ramming of walls.

In the case of EULFNOD\LQJDQH൵RUWGHSHQGVRQZKHWKHUWKHEULFNVDUH¿UHGRUVXQEXUQHG)LULQJ of bricks is related to a high-energy input and much higher costs than using adobe bricks. The ODWWHUKDYHWREHSUHSDUHGTXLWHHDUO\ZLWKLQD\HDUDVVRRQDVWKHHDUWKLVQRORQJHUIUR]HQVR that they can dry and be ready for processing in another season within the same year. In Tibet, construction of a residential house in general does not take longer than two seasons (Alexander 7KHV\VWHPRIVHDVRQDOFRQVWUXFWLRQZRUNLQÀXHQFHVWKHSULYDWHVHFWRUEXWDOVRSXEOLF construction work, for instance, at monasteries. Again, in the Himalayas, traditional work at monasteries is (or in Tibet was) executed by either monks, persons directly related to the monastery, locals with a certain duty towards the monastery or by paid external workers. Workers were commonly recruited from the rural area.

7KHVXUYLYDORINQRZOHGJHRIWUDGLWLRQDOWHFKQLTXHVDOVRGHSHQGVRQWKHLUFRPSOH[LW\7RNHHS with the example of making a rammed earth wall or an *arga* roof, the need exists for someone who has knowledge of the individual working steps, their duration, their need in human and material UHVRXUFHVDQGVSHFL¿FWHFKQLFDOIHDWXUHV\$WOHDVWRQHSHUVRQIRUH[DPSOHWKHVXSHUYLVRUKDVWR be aware of all these facets of construction. However, some of the work itself can be conducted by ODERXUHUVZLWKQRVSHFL¿FNQRZOHGJHRUHGXFDWLRQ,QTibet for the case of repairing an *arga* roof, the process has to be conducted in several steps guided by at least one supervisor, who precisely knows the individual working steps.

While ramming a URRIUHTXLUHVQRVSHFLDOWUDLQLQJVSHFL¿FNQRZOHGJHLVHVVHQWLDOIRUWKHZRUNRI DFDUSHQWHURUPDVRQ7KHTXDOLW\RIZRUNLVQRWGHSHQGHQWRQO\RQKDYLQJDJRRGVXSHUYLVRUEXW on the skill of the single worker. Today in Ladakh or Spiti, skilled stone carvers are locals but also workers from Kashmir or Nepal. Another recent example of employing workers from outside the village community concerns the renovation of the village temple of Lalung (alt. 3,650 m) in Spiti in 2006. Here construction of a ÀDWroof is a tradition related to a shortage of timber in this region. Contrary to tradition, a sloping roof was installed on the former ÀDWroof by carpenters originating not from the village but from outside 6SLWL)RUVXFKVSHFL¿FFUDIWVWKHOLPLWVRIQHLJKERXUO\KHOS are evident.

:LWKWKHXVH RI SDUWLFXODUPDWHULDOVDQG UHODWHGEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVD VSHFL¿FGHPDQG IRUODbourers follows. Depending on the complexity of the work, it can either be conducted by lay- or semi-skilled workers or just by skilled workers. Knowledge is passed on from one generation to WKHQH[WZLWKLQDPDVWHUDSSUHQWLFHUHODWLRQRUZLWKLQDVSHFL¿FJURXSRIZRUNHUVLQDNLQGRI FUDIWJXLOG&UDIWVDUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\LQKHULWHGDVVKRZQE\WKHH[DPSOHRI.|QFKRJ7VHULQJ a clay sculptor in Lhasa, who the author visited in December 2015 (see Chapter II). As a young PDQ.|QFKRJ7VHULQJZRUNHGDVDKRXVHDQGIXUQLWXUHSDLQWHU\$ERXW\HDUVDJRKHIROORZHG his passion and was trained in clay modelling by a master in Lhasa. In his case he did not follow a IDPLO\WUDGLWLRQ8SXQWLOEHVLGHVWKHFOHUJ\DQGDULVWRFUDF\VXEFDWHJRULHVRIFRPPRQHUV FDQEHPHQWLRQHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUVRFLDOUDQN\$GL൵HUHQWLDWLRQRIWKHVHFDWHJRULHVFRUUHODWHV ZLWKIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWRZQHUVKLSRIODQGHFRQRPLFVWDWXVDQGDVSHFL¿FDOO\UHJXODWHGGXW\ WRSD\WD[HV\$PRQJWKHVHZH¿QGDJXLOGRIDUWLVDQVVLPLODUWRDVRFLDOJURXSRILWVRZQZKLFK IRUPHGXQGHUWKH)LIWK'DODL/DPD¶VJRYHUQPHQWLQWKHthFHQWXU\5RQJH7KLV 7LEHWDQJXLOGLQFOXGHGDEXLOGHUV¶FRPPXQLW\FDOOHG*doshing zokhang* (Tib. *rdo shing bzo khang*) or *do shing chipa* (Tib. *rdo shing spyi pa*ZKLFK EHIRUH KDGLQFOXGHG XSWR UHJXODU PHPEHUVDQGPRUHLIUHTXLUHG\$OH[DQGHU,QPDMRU7LEHWDQPRQDVWHULHVWKLVJXLOG was employed to engage in the maintenance, repair and restoration work of major monasteries. This guild also included experts responsible for plaster and clay, and the *shepön* (Tib. *zhal dpon*, ³OHDGHU RIWKH ÀRRULQJ´ ZKLFKLQFOXGHG IHPDOHPHPEHUV ,QWKLV FRPPXQLW\ RIPDVRQVWKH *shepön* had the lowest social status, contrary to the carpenters who had the highest. Living and working as an artisan in /KDVDUHTXLUHGMRLQLQJRIDJXLOGLELG

In Himachal Pradesh, building works, like the erection of a new house, are conducted within customary community participation (locally known as *kewar* or *saret*) (Handa 2008b: 138). Related FXVWRPVDUH GL൵HUHQWLQWKHFDVHWKDW VRPHRQHZLWKLQWKHFRPPXQLW\LV QRWDEOHWRFRQGXFWD VSHFL¿FWDVN\$WWKH*Gaddi* in Himachal Pradesh, for example, a carpenter is a skilled person by FKRLFHQRWE\FRPSXOVLRQRULQKHULWDQFHLELGWKLVLVFRQWUDU\WRWKH*Gujjar*s, who do not accept anyone from outside kith and kin as part of customary community participation (ibid. 150).

Primarily in the so-called "Western world", the loss of building traditions has already strongly progressed. In most of the rest of the world, tendencies are orientated towards that loss. Today, DVDUHVXOWRIQDWXUDOO\GH¿QHGIRUFHVWKHIROORZLQJRIWUDGLWLRQVKDVFKDQJHGLQWRDYROXQWDU\ decision. Modern building materials are advertised with a longevity and less time resources of LQGLYLGXDOVIRUPDLQWHQDQFH,QUXUDODUHDVEXLOGLQJZLWKµPRGHUQ¶PDWHULDOVJHQHUDWHVDODFNRI VNLOOHGZRUNHUVZLWKNQRZOHGJHRIFHUWDLQWUDGLWLRQDOO\SUHGHWHUPLQHGTXDOLWLHV7KLVFKDQJHWR-ZDUGVWKHދPRGHUQHUDތKDVHYHQUHDFKHGUHPRWHSODFHVLQWKH+LPDOD\DV

With the neglect of certain natural material resources and the loss of related traditions, evidence of their existence is disappearing. Earlier clay pits in large settlements, for example, in Leh in Ladakh, are reported to have been built over and are no longer accessible. This results in either DFFHSWLQJEXLOGLQJPDWHULDORIORZHUTXDOLW\RULQYHVWLQJLQKLJKHUTXDOLW\ZLWKKLJKHUFRVWVIRUD longer distance of transport. With opening of the market and the need for innovations, renunciation of local resources is a way to keep pace or dominate a market. As comparison, in the Western sphere during the 18thDQGth century, continental and American traders started to look for new manufacturing methods, with \*UHDW%ULWDLQDVWKH¿UVWLQGXVWULDOLVHG SRZHU -HUHP\  Decisions for development changed from a local level towards a state level. Technologies were LPSRUWHGWUDQVIRUPHGDQGPRGL¿HGE\FXOWXUDOIHDWXUHVLELG128 Governmental building structures installed by the British in Indian Himalayan settlements in Himachal Pradesh, for example in Shimla or in Kaza (the latter located in Spiti), stick out with corrugated iron roofs or PDVVLYHVWRQHZDOOVHUHFWHGDJDLQVWORFDOEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV:LWKLQWKLVSURFHVVH[WHUQDOLQÀX-HQFHVEHFRPHDGULYLQJ IRUFH IRU IXUWKHUFKDQJHVRIWKH µORFDO¶ZKLFKLV± UHJDUGLQJEXLOGLQJ WUDGLWLRQV±GZLQGOLQJRYHUWLPH

On the Himalayan plateau, over the centuries the availability of wood has decreased and this point needs to be considered during research on historical structures. It should not be excluded that centuries ago the use of timber was much more common in the Himalayas than it is the case WRGD\6FLHQWL¿FUHSRUWVVWDWHWKDWWKHDULGLW\ZLWKLQCentral Tibet is primarily caused by defor-HVWDWLRQDQGKLJKTXDOLW\WLPEHUVXFKDVcedar was much more easily available in earlier days. Recent research shows that "the present high mountain deserts of southern Tibet are the result of deforestation due to centuries of woodcutting, use of incense, and grazing" (Miehe et al. 2003). Previously, around 3,000 years ago, the Muktinath Valley in Mustang, as an example, was much more densely settled with a higher number of livestock. This may have resulted in an overexploitation of the land (Kriechbaum 2002: 82). Examinations of the vegetation have shown that the vegetation cover of the whole valley was strongly changed by human activities (ibid. 81) and resources of structural timber may have continuously decreased.

### 2.1 Discussion

Vernacular is a social concept tightly related to local conditions of raw material resources. Diversity of local building materials and expertise in processing is a crucial factor for keeping a vernacular system alive. In Central Tibet, the saying *sana dona* points towards this material diver-VLW\RIGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIVWRQHVDQGFOD\WKHLUGL൵HUHQWTXDOLWLHVDQGGL൵HUHQWZD\VRISURFHVVLQJ In this context, diversity of raw materials becomes essential with their use. For the maintenance of diversity, certain preconditions need to be held in balance. To keep the use of local materials economic and ecological, availability must be secured within a certain distance. This fact determines the means of transportation. Materials for a representative purpose for a wealthy society are not

<sup>128</sup> A further development that diverges inevitably from traditional local standards is based on a technology transfer, ZKLFKPD\H[SODLQIXUWKHUG\QDPLFVLQLPSRUWDQGWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWHFKQRORJLHV-HUHP\PHQWLRQVWKH following parameters: Vehicles of transfer, networks of access to the originating economy, information goals of DFTXLUHUVPHWKRGVRILQIRUPDWLRQFROOHFWLRQDQGVSHHGRIWUDQVIHURIDJLYHQWHFKQRORJ\

6LU&KDUOHV%HOOUHSRUWVDWUDGLWLRQDOVD\LQJWKDWLQHDUOLHUWLPHVWKHUHZHUHPXFKPRUHcypress trees in Tibet.

bound in the same way to local availability, justifying transport over a longer distance.

6XEVWLWXWLRQRIORFDOPDWHULDOVIRUSURGXFWVIURPH[WHUQDOPDUNHWVLQÀXHQFHVWKHYHUQDFXODUV\Vtem, possibly irreversibly. Transmission of knowledge of materials is primarily given by oral and inherited means. Work is basically conducted by the house owners and the local community. A distinction is to be made between crafts capable of being conducted by semi-skilled labourers, and WKRVHUHTXLULQJDVSHFL¿FDOO\WUDLQHGVNLOO7KLVGL൵HUHQFHLQÀXHQFHVWKHFRPSOH[LW\LQWUDQVPLVsion of certain skills. In vernacular systems, only in particular cases and communities are specialists brought into the local community from outside. In the Himalayas, dependent on cultural DQGLQSDUWLFXODUUHOLJLRXVD൶OLDWLRQPDWHULDOVDUHFRQQRWHGZLWKDFHUWDLQPHDQLQJEH\RQGWKHLU simple functional use. This fact integrates them into customs of a village community.

Composite constructions, which follow a particular content of raw materials, for instance, stone, clay or wood, are based on material diversity and sensitive to changes in the local availability of raw material components. In the following parts 3 and 4 of Chapter IV, this matter leads us from material diversity towards diversity of constructions.

### 3. (ඇඏංඋඈඇආൾඇඍൺඅൺඌඉൾർඍඌർඅංආൺඍൾൺඇൽඋൺඐආൺඍൾඋංൺඅ

Building traditions follow particular cultural patterns and are subject to change over time (see *Preliminaries*). On the one hand, changes may be regarded as culturally determined, and traditions may remain the same, change or vanish due to a variety of reasons. On the other hand, variations may result from certain local preconditions. Thus, mentioned here are naturally given aspects,130ZKLFKLQJHQHUDODUH¿[HGDQGFKDQJHRQO\RYHUDUDWKHUORQJWLPHspan (climate, vegetation, geology, etc.). Such change (e.g. precipitation or availability of natural resources) may induce a change of building traditions.

Environmental, socio-cultural and socio-economic are described as the three main attributes of sustainable architecture (Guillaud et al. 2014: 6). Vernacular architecture in general follows these DVSHFWV6SHFL¿FDOO\HQYLURQPHQWDOSUHFRQGLWLRQVDQGWKHLULPSDFWRQ+LPDOD\DQFRPSRVLWHFRQstructions are treated in the following.

Inhabitants of former times did not have knowledge of statics calculations, e.g. concerning seismic motions or statics and static collaterals. The high durability of the building materials used shows WKDWWKH\XQGHUVWRRGWKHTXDOLWLHVRIUHJLRQDOO\DYDLODEOHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDODQGZHUHZHOODZDUH RIWKHLUFRQVWUXFWLYHXVH7KLVDOVRSRLQWVWRZDUGVDQDZDUHQHVVRIHDUWKTXDNHUHVLVWDQWVWUXFWXUHV +LVWRULFDOVWUXFWXUHVZHUHQRWEXLOWRQWKHEDVLVRIDXQL¿HGEXLOGLQJFRGH[EXWIROORZHGNQRZOedge transmitted over generations and which grew empirically through experience.131 Posing the TXHVWLRQIRUWKHXVHRISDUWLFXODUFRQVWUXFWLRQVLVEDVHGRQWKHH[LVWHQFHRINQRZOHGJHUHODWHGWR HQYLURQPHQWEHKDYLRXULQWHUDFWLRQ 5DSRSRUW3HRSOHDUHQRWVHWWOHGLQDSDUWLFXODU LQÀXHQFLQJHQYLURQPHQWWKH\LQVWHDGVHDUFKIRUWKHSURSHUHQYLURQPHQWLELG

,QWKH+LPDOD\DVZH¿QGJUHDWGLYHUVLW\LQGL൵HUHQWQDWXUDOO\JLYHQSUHFRQGLWLRQVDQGUHODWHG EXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV:LWKLQVHYHUDO¿HOGVWXGLHVLQWKH+LPDOD\DVDFRKHUHQWSLFWXUHRIH[LVWLQJ building traditions was gained. We can distinguish between a generalised and a detailed categorisation of features of vernacular architecture. With the general categorisation we can refer to general features of construction, such as the use of particular raw materials related to particular altitudes over a wide region, for example, the Himalayas in general. This approach is rather inaccurate. With detailed categorisation, in addition to the assignment of particular features of con-VWUXFWLRQWRDFHUWDLQDOWLWXGHLWLVSRVVLEOHWRUHODWHVSHFL¿FFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGUHODWHGYDULDWLRQV WRDSDUWLFXODUORFDOLQÀXHQFH7KLVDSSURDFKFRQVLGHUVORFDOYDULDWLRQVDQGLVHVVHQWLDO IRUWKH following study.

<sup>130</sup> 6DQGHUVPHQWLRQVLQKLVVWXG\RQ³EHKDYLRXUDOFRQYHQWLRQVDQGDUFKDHRORJ\´VHYHQIDFWRUVWKDWVKDSH a house: climate, topography, available materials, level of technology, available economic resources, function, and cultural conventions. According to his categorisation three of these factors, namely climate, topography and raw PDWHULDOVDUH¿[HGLQÀXHQFHVDQGQDWXUDOO\GHWHUPLQHGLELG

<sup>131</sup> 7KHVHWUDGLWLRQDO DQG FRPPRQO\ DFFHSWHG SUDFWLFHV VWDQGLQ FRQWUDVWWRWRGD\¶V EXLOGLQJ FRGHV ,Q DKashmir FRQWH[WWKHUHDUH IRXUHVVHQWLDODVSHFWVPHQWLRQHG E\/DQJHQEDFK   VPDOO VWUHQJWK RIWKHPRUWDU QRERQGLQJEHWZHHQLQ¿OOZDOOVDQGSLHUVZHDNERQGEHWZHHQWKHZ\WKHVRIWKHPDVRQU\LQWKHZDOOVDQG IUHTXHQWKLVWRULFDOXVHRIKHDY\VRGURRIV

Map 4.2 Elevation within the core region.

GIS data based map drawn by: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on Vector data (VD) and SRTM digital elevation data (SR) adapted from Jarvis et al. 2008. Citations of VD and SR also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

The present study concerns primarily composite constructions with wooden components in the :HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DV,QWKH¿HOGRIVWUXFWXUDOHQJLQHHULQJDFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVJLYHQZKHQ WZRGL൵HUHQWPDWHULDOVLQWKHSDUWLFXODUFDVHRIWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQLHFOD\DQGRUVWRQHDQGZRRG DUHERXQGWRJHWKHULQVXFKDZD\WKDWWKH\µFROODERUDWH¶DVDVLQJOHVWUXFWXUH7KLVLQFOXGHVHJ framework constructions or solid walls with timber lacing, i.e. materials that work as a construc-WLYHXQLW\$WOHDVWWZRPDWHULDOVKDYHWREHERXQGWRJDLQDQHZXQL¿HGVWUXFWXUDOXQLWDQGLQGRLQJ VRWKHPDWHULDOVVXSSRUWHDFKRWKHUIRULQVWDQFHFRQFHUQLQJWKHLUHQHUJ\H൵RUWLQSURFHVVLQJRU their physical or mechanical properties, like insulation, thermal storage, water repellence etc.

Composite constructions are a synergy of several materials. This may be a solid wall construction DVDFRPELQDWLRQRIGL൵HUHQWFRPSRQHQWVHJDVWRQHZDOODbrick wall or a rammed earth wall, DOORIZKLFKLQWKLVVWXG\DUHFRPELQHGZLWKZRRGHQODFLQJLQWKLVVWXG\LWPD\DOVREHDVNHOHWRQ FRQVWUXFWLRQRIZRRGZLWKLQ¿OOVRIFOD\bricks or stone. The way of combining materials and the proportional distribution of each material component depends on particular technical parameters.

7KH+LPDOD\DVKDYHWREHPHQWLRQHGDVKDYLQJDJUHDWYDULHW\RIGL൵HUHQWEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV\$ large number of these traditions are still practised and include a great variety of composite constructions. Various forms of timber lacing were treated in the literature, e.g. Randolph Langenbach covered various regions such as Pakistan and India, in particular Kashmir, and Turkey (see http:// www.conservationtech.com), and Richard Hughes focused on vernacular architecture in Pakistan (see Hughes 2000a, 2005, 2007) or Turkey (see Hughes 2000b). For the Indian Himalayas, Neil +RZDUGORRNHGDWIRUWUHVVDUFKLWHFWXUHLQLadakh, and O.C. Handa (2001) examined particular local constructions in the Western Himalayas. One of the main criteria for a continuous change of resources is a changing altitude, correlating with changes in temperature and precipitation. These are some of the crucial parameters for technical building decisions. They are in direct relation to local availability of particular raw materials, and availability changes with increasing altitudes (Map 4.2). Composite constructions in the Western Himalayas are found in mountainous areas within a certain altitude range. Related areas reach from lower altitudes of app. 1,585 m in Srinagar up to altitudes of app. 3,600 m in /DGDNK7KLVVWXG\FRQFHUQVHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHV SULPDULO\ZLWKLQWKHVHDSSPHWUHVGL൵HUHQFHRIDOWLWXGH

For the reason that early structures provide a good picture of later developments, such early structures are emphasised. Several of the representative objects of research are religious structures. They represent a hierarchically high social status within the related local community, were PDLQWDLQHGZLWKPRVWFDUHDQGHUHFWHGZLWKEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVIROORZLQJDKLJKWHFKQLFDOVWDQdard. Of relevance in this study are local technical authenticities, which in some examples still remain as local traditions or have either vanished or changed over centuries, e.g. were replaced by modern structures. The names of the builders of vernacular architecture are in many cases not known.1320DWHULDOUHVRXUFHVH[HUWLQÀXHQFHRQWKHGHVLJQRIDEXLOGLQJ7KH¿QDOGHVLJQGHFLsion is not solely material, but culturally related. Certain timber-lacedWHFKQLTXHVVKRZERWKORFDO D൶OLDWLRQDQGDQLQWHJUDWLRQLQWRDZLGHUW\SRORJLFDOFRQWH[W)LQGLQJDQRULJLQRIWLPEHUlacing WUDGLWLRQVVHHPVWREHGL൶FXOWEXWORRNLQJIRUHDUO\WHFKQLFDOGHYHORSPHQWVPD\KHOSWRXQGHUstand historical and in particular function-based developments.

<sup>132</sup> %DVLFDOO\ZHDUHWDONLQJDERXWDUFKLWHFWXUHZLWKRXWDUFKLWHFWVIROORZLQJ5XGRIVN\¶VFRUHPHVVDJHZLWK patterns of construction as communal achievement, related to a particular region. For a further discourse on vernacular architecture, see above under *Preliminaries*.

### 5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQDQGPHWKRG

:KDW LQÀXHQFH KDV WKH FKDQJLQJ DOWLWXGH LQ WKHWestern Himalayas in correlation with envi-URQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHVRQWKHWHFKQLFDOGHYHORSPHQWRIWUDGLWLRQDOFRPSRVLWHZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQV" Traditional composite wall constructions and their material components will be examined according to altitude-related environmental parameters.

### 3.2 Research area

A core region of this examination within the Western Himalayas stretches from Ladakh (which is located in the province Jammu and Kashmir) in the north and the districts Chamba, /DKDXO Spiti, and Kinnaur (which are located in the province Himachal Pradesh) in the south. Comparative examples from the mountainous Pakistan provinces Gilgit-Baltistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Jammu and Kashmir are given (see Map 4.1).

### 3.3 Natural preconditions related to altitude

Regarding environmental changes due to changing altitude, both temperature and precipitation DUH RI FHQWUDO LPSRUWDQFH IRU YHUQDFXODU EXLOGLQJ WUDGLWLRQV 7HPSHUDWXUHV PD\ LQÀXHQFH WKH WKLFNQHVVRIZDOOV:DOOVWUXFWXUHVD൵HFWWKHKHDWLQVXODWLRQDQGWKHGLVSHUVLRQRIKXPLGLW\LQD ÀXLGRUJDVHRXVDJJUHJDWHSKDVHLQVLGHWKHZDOOVWUXFWXUHDVZHOODVLQVLGHWKHEXLOGLQJ3HUVLVWHQW KXPLGLW\QHJDWLYHO\D൵HFWVWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQ\$WFROGWHPSHUDWXUHVZDWHUWKDWKDVIUR]HQZLWKLQ WKHFRQVWUXFWLRQPD\OHDGWRZDUGVWKHH൵HFWRIFRQJHOLIUDFWLRQDQGE\WKDWRSHQFUDFNVIRUIXUWKHU water intrusion. Persistent moisture penetration of wooden parts of the building may result in rotting. Precipitation concerns primarily the protection of the surface to make the wall repellent DJDLQVWRUFORVHGR൵ IURPZDWHULQWUXVLRQ0DNLQJDVWRQHSOLQWKXSWRDFHUWDLQKHLJKWDERYH ground level is the most common method to break the capillary moisture rising from the ground below. Aside from the wall construction, the URRILVSULPDULO\D൵HFWHGE\SUHFLSLWDWLRQDQGXVing a pitched roof instead of a ÀDWURRIFDQURXJKO\EHDVFULEHGWRGL൵HUHQWLQÀXHQFHVOLNHUDLQRU snow or the changing amount of precipitation in higher altitudes and less forested areas.

Another vulnerability of constructions is caused by water along the outer surface of the wall, in particular when using wooden components. This problem is evident in the framework or in timber-laced buildings, where the wooden components are often visible along the outer surface of the wall. Plastering of the whole wall can easily result in cracks in the plaster in the area covering the junction between the wood and other material components. In a traditional way, the use RIYHJHWDEOHRUDQLPDO¿EUHVKHOSVWRUHGXFHRUHYHQWRDYRLGFUDFNV'L൵HUHQWPHWKRGVLQXVLQJ VXFK¿EUHVDUHVKRZQZLWKWHFKQLTXHVRISURFHVVLQJFOD\IRUVFXOSWXUHVVHH&KDSWHU,,\$VVRRQ as a crack occurs, humidity is able to enter the construction. In the case of frost, a congelifraction can result with the crack eventually enlarging and causing weakening of the particular wall structure. In the case of plaster avoidance, as is the case at many vernacular structures, the circulation RIDLUZDWHUDQGGDPSZLWKLQWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVQRWLPSHGHGDQGWKHFKDQFHRITXLFNHUGU\LQJ RIWKHLQ¿OWUDWHG KXPLGLW\LV JLYHQ\$YRLGDQFH RIplastering outer wall surfaces can be found in many vernacular structures all over the Himalayas. The adobe brick temples of Tabo can be mentioned as early examples. The foundation of the earliest core of this monastery dates back to &(,QSLFWXUHVSXEOLVKHGE\5RPL.KRVODLQWKHFRXUVHRIDFRQVHUYDWLRQSURMHFWE\WKH\$6, .KRVODSLFWXUHV±ZHFDQVHHWKHGRFXPHQWDWLRQRIWKHLUXQSODVWHUHGVWDWHEHIRUH plastering. In arid zones rainfall may also be strong, but not of such a duration that the saturation RIWKHXQ¿UHGbricks leads to the danger of a loss of stability of the construction. This changes with DQLQFUHDVHRIWKHGXUDWLRQRIUDLQIDOOLQWKDWVWDELOLW\ZRXOGEHQHJDWLYHO\D൵HFWHG7KHVWURQJ rainfalls in August 2010 in Ladakh and 6SLWLVKRZHGWKHGUDPDWLFH൵HFWVRIDFOLPDWLFFKDQJH with long lasting precipitation on adobe constructions.

The primary function of exterior walls of vernacular structures in the Himalayas is related to stability. This concerns carrying both a static load (e.g. a roof) and a dynamic load (e.g. by ground VHWWOHPHQWRUHDUWKTXDNHV:LWKLQWUDGLWLRQDOYLOODJHOLIHWKHLQVXODWLRQRIVWRQHZRRGDQGHDUWK walls of vernacular structures is not of striking relevance for the inhabitants since most activities during the day happen outside the building, and heating is reduced, primarily to the preparation of food. Clothing and not buildings is the main heat regulator. In a traditional Himalayan house, the intermittent way of heating results in dependence on the heating and cooling phases from the thermal conductivity of the used constructions (cf. Künzel 2014: 41, 42).

The thermal conductivity (measured in W/mK) of building materials and the degree of moisture SHQHWUDWLRQDUHHVVHQWLDOSDUDPHWHUVIRUWKHLQVXODWLQJH൵HFWRIEXLOGLQJFRPSRQHQWV&RPSDUHG with mineral building materials such as clay or stone, wood has a relatively low thermal conductivity. The content of wood at composite constructions is rather low, and an increasing content of wooden elements increases the heat insulation of the wall but also the amount of joint gaps to ad-MRLQLQJZDOOPDWHULDOV,QVXODWLRQZLWKFOD\LVZRUVHWKDQZLWKZRRGEXWVWLOOPRUHH൶FLHQWWKDQ with stone. In the case of rain, the insulation is strongly reduced due to temperature transmission VXSSRUWHGE\VRUSWLRQ\$QXQSODVWHUHGZDOOIRUH[DPSOHPD\FRQWULEXWHWRDTXLFNHUUHPRYDORI water stored inside the wall compared to a plastered wall.

Before analysing single structures, temperature and precipitation are to be summed for the research areas. This step supports getting insight into the dependence of a particular type of build-LQJWHFKQLTXHRQHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVDQGWKHORFDODYDLODELOLW\RISDUWLFXODUUDZPDWHULDOV 9HJHWDWLRQLVPDLQO\LQÀXHQFHGE\FKDQJLQJWHPSHUDWXUHVDQGSUHFLSLWDWLRQ7KHSDUWLFXODUW\SH RIORFDOO\DYDLODEOHFOD\LVDOVRLQÀXHQFHGIRUH[DPSOHE\ZLQGRUZDWHUHURVLRQ\$YDLODEOHVSHcies of stone are primarily related to geological factors.

### 3.4 Western Himalayan climate in general

Himalayan altitudes of the core region of this study (mountainous regions of Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh) range between app. 1,800 m and 3,600 m. Climate plays a crucial role LQWKHDYDLODELOLW\RIVSHFL¿FUDZPDWHULDOVIRUEXLOGLQJSXUSRVHLQSDUWLFXODUWLPEHUstone and FOD\7KHFOLPDWHGLYHUVLW\RIWKH+LPDOD\DVZKLFKDFWDVFOLPDWHEDUULHUVUHÀHFWVWKHYDULHW\RI QDWXUDOEXLOGLQJUHVRXUFHVLQWKLVUHJLRQ,QWKHIROORZLQJDQRYHUYLHZLVJLYHQRIWKHGL൵HUHQWFOLmate types in the core region. Table 4.2, which contains altitudes and climate data, is shown in the \$SSHQGL[RI&KDSWHU,9\$FFRUGLQJWRDGHWDLOHGJOREDOFOLPDWHFODVVL¿FDWLRQE\.|SSHQ\*HLJHU (WMKG), the present area of study within the :HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DVZLOOEHFODVVL¿HGDFFRUGLQJWR Peel et al. (2007)133.

<sup>133</sup> Cf. map by Peel et al. 2007. Online: http://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/mpeel/koppen.html, access: 05/2016.

0DS&OLPDWHFODVVL¿FDWLRQ

GIS data based map drawn by: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on Vector data (VD) and Climate map (CM) adapted from Peel et al. 2007. Citations of VD and CM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

2IWKH¿YHFOLPDWHW\SHVJLYHQE\3HHOHWDOWKUHHVWUHWFKRYHUWKHWestern Himalayas: DULG>%@WHPSHUDWH>&@DQGFROG>'@7KHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHGL൵HUHQWFOLPDWHW\SHVLQWKHWestern Himalayas follows the orientation of the topography from north-west to south-east. The northeastern region with Ladakh is assigned to the arid zone [B]. The cold zone [D] continues to the west, stretching from Chitral in North Pakistan in the north to Moorang in Kinnaur in the south. Further west the temperate zone [C] continues from Nuristan in Afghanistan in the north to Uttarakhand in the south. These three climate types are subdivided into several categories, as described in the following from north-east to south-west (Map 4.3). Abbreviations for climate W\SHVDUHJLYHQLQVTXDUHEUDFNHWVDFFRUGLQJWR3HHOHWDO

### *3.4.1 Arid climates [B]*


### *3.4.2 Cold climates [D]*


### *3.4.3 Temperate climate [C]*


### 202 Chapter IV


3.5 Climate in the areas of study:

Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North Pakistan, Central and West Tibet

When not further mentioned, the summary follows the data given in Table 4.3 in the Appendix of Chapter IV according to *Climate data for cities worldwide*DFFRUGLQJWR.|SSHQDQG\*HLJHU LQWKHIROORZLQJEULHÀ\PHQWLRQHGDV³&'´\$OWLWXGHVDUHJLYHQLQPHWUHV7KHJLYHQGDWDDUH EDVHGRQDQDQQXDODYHUDJHDQGPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPSHDNVLQWHPSHUDWXUHPD\GL൵HUIURP the given average data. In an architectural context, precipitation stresses the need for the proper protection of roofs and walls regarding water ingress into the construction. In the case of snowfall, besides water ingress as a result of melting, the increasing weight from snowfall is of particu-ODUUHOHYDQFH\$KLJKGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQGDLO\PLQLPXPDQGPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUHVZLOOVWUDLQ the ability of materials to increase or decrease their volumes. In this relation, cracks become an LPSRUWDQWPDWWHURIFRQVWUXFWLRQ9DU\LQJFRQGLWLRQVLQÀXHQFHORFDOWHFKQLTXHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQ \$OWLWXGHVDERYHVHDOHYHODUHJLYHQLQPHWUHV>P@7KHDOWLWXGHGDWDRI.|SSHQDQG\*HLJHU&' are compared with and, if necessary, adjusted to the data given in Google Earth.

### 3.5.1 Jammu and Kashmir

### *Ladakh*

In Ladakh, minimal precipitation over the year is the norm. The data for Leh (alt. 3,520 m), Phyang (alt. 3,510 m) and Thikse (alt. 3,250 m) are similar. Low temperature is on average app. & DQGWKH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQPLQLPXP DQGPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUH JRHV XSWR DSS & which is comparatively high. Precipitation increases in the west towards Kargil (alt. 2,700 m). This is visible by the increase of vegetation. (CD) Over the course of a single year, there is more VQRZIDOOPD[LPXPDSSFPWKDQUDLQ&XQQLQJKDP,QDras (west of Kargil), strong snowfall may start in November (ibid. 180). In Leh, rainfall is limited to short showers usually between July and September. In Kargil, in summer, there are just a few days with rainfall DQGORWVRIVQRZLQZLQWHU1HJL

#### *Srinagar*

A strong change occurs from Ladakh towards Srinagar in .DVKPLUDOWP3UHFLSLWDWLRQ occurs throughout the entire year, and even in the driest month it is still relatively high. Annual precipitation is about twice as high as in Kargil (alt. 2,700 m) and six times as high as in Leh or Phyang. Also in winter precipitation is rather high. Temperatures go down to around 0°C. (CD) 3UHFLSLWDWLRQLVKLJKHULQZLQWHUWKDQLQVXPPHU1HJL6XPPHUVLQKashmir Valley are temperate with severe winters (GSI 2012b: 2).

### 3.5.2 Himachal Pradesh

#### *Lahaul*

In Lahaul (.H\ORQJDOWP\*RQGKODDOWPUdaipur, alt. 2,650 m), the amount of precipitation is much higher compared to the data given for Leh and Phyang, but still rather low. Precipitation is higher in summer than in winter. While maximum temperature in Lahaul is similar to Leh and Phyang, the minimum temperature is higher (CD), and in Keylong it may severely GURSEHORZWKHIUHH]LQJSRLQW1HJL6QRZPD\IDOODOUHDG\LQ2FWREHU&XQQLQJKDP 2005: 180). Snowfall is much stronger than in 6SLWLVHHEHORZ%DMSDL

#### *Spiti and Upper Kinnaur*

In Spiti (Kaza, alt. 3,660 m), annual precipitation is lower than in Lahaul, but still higher compared to Leh or Phyang. Climate in Upper Kinnaur (Nako, alt. 3,630 m) is similar to the climate of Kaza. Precipitation is still higher in summer than in winter. (CD) The biggest amount of snow is mentioned with a height of app. 75 cm. The season for snow is between November and February (Cunningham 2005: 181). For 6SLWL9HUPDUHSRUWVKHDY\GRZQSRXUVHJLQ 6HSWHPEHUZLWKPPLQ-XO\ZLWKPPDQGLQ\$XJXVWZLWKPPDQG that snow may remain on the surface until April.

### *Middle and Lower Kinnaur*

In Middle and Lower Kinnaur (6SLOORDOWP5HNRQJ3HRDOWPKalpa, alt. 2,760 m), annual precipitation is similar to Lahaul (Keylong, alt. 3,100 m), and temperatures in winter drop to close to 0°C. From Upper Kinnaur to Middle Kinnaur, winter instead of summer is the season with the most precipitation. (CD)

#### *Shimla District*

In Shimla District (5DPSXU DOW P SUHFLSLWDWLRQ FOHDUO\LQFUHDVHV FRPSDUHGWRKinnaur. From Kinnaur to Middle Kinnaur, summer instead of winter is the season with the most precipitation. (CD) In 6KLPODDOWPIURVWLVIUHTXHQWLQZLQWHUZKLOHLQVXPPHUWHPSHUDWXUHVULVH WRDSS&1HJL

#### *Kullu*

Further north towards Kullu (Manali, alt. 2,000 m), annual precipitation is nearly double compared to Rampur and twenty times more compared to Leh. The average minimum temperature ranges around 0°C. The North Indian districts Lahaul, Spiti, Upper Kinnaur and Ladakh have less precipitation and are on average colder, while towards Chamba (Bharmaur, alt. 2,170 m), precipitation and temperature are rather similar. (CD) Winter in 0DQDOLFDQEHVHYHUH1HJL 70). Kullu is located at a frontier of two climatic zones, i.e. the south zone with monsoons and the FRQWLQHQWDO]RQHZLWKDF\FOHRIVHDVRQV3RVWHOHWDO

#### *Chamba*

In Chamba (3XUWKLDOWP%KDUPDXUDOWP&KDPEDDOWPWKHFOLPDWHLVVLPLlar to regions west of Kinnaur with less precipitation in winter compared to summer. This changes again further north in Lahaul. In Purthi, precipitation occurs throughout the whole year. (CD) In the upper valleys of the Chandra and Bhaga Rivers, during the season from app. the end of the \HDUXQWLO0D\DVPDOODPRXQWRIVQRZPD\EHH[SHULHQFHG%DMSDL

### 3.5.3 North Pakistan

### *Gilgit-Baltistan*

In the province of Gilgit-Baltistan, a climate with low precipitation throughout the year is prevalent (CD). Altitudes of the observed areas range between 1,470 m in Gilgit and 2,430 m in Baltit. (CD) In Baltit (alt. 2,430 m), Skardu (alt. 2,250 m), Keris (alt. 2,310 m) and Khaplu (alt. 2,600 m), WHPSHUDWXUHV UDQJH EHWZHHQ & DQG &7KH GL൵HUHQFH EHWZHHQPLQLPXP DQGPD[LPXP temperature is up to app. 30°C. Annual precipitation is about twice as high as in Ladakh (see Leh and Phyang). Minimum temperatures are similar to Ladakh (see Leh and Phyang), while in comparison maximum temperatures are higher. The highest precipitation occurs in the warm season. In Gilgit (alt. 1,470 m), which is about 1,000 m lower than, e.g. Baltit, it is much warmer, while precipitation remains similar. (CD) As reported by Hughes (2005: 22), in Hunza rainfall can be TXLWHLQWHQVHDQGGDPDJLQJEXWQRWIUHTXHQW

### *Khyber Pakhtunkhwa*

Further west in the province of .K\EHU3DNKWXQNKZDZHDOVR¿QGORZ SUHFLSLWDWLRQ RYHUWKH course of the year. In 6D]ƯQDOWPZKLFKLVDSSPEHORZWKHDOWLWXGHRI Gilgit, maximum temperature is similar, but low temperatures are in comparison higher and not below 0°C. Annual precipitation is about three times as high. At Kalam (alt. 2,000 m), which is app. 250 m lower than 6NDUGXZH¿QGDVLPLODUUHODWLRQZLWKPLQLPXPWHPSHUDWXUHUDQJLQJDERYH&,Q Kalam, the climate is moderate, but warm. Precipitation is observed throughout the year, with even the driest month experiencing high precipitation. (CD)

### 3.5.4 Central and West Tibet

In comparison with Tibetan climate conditions, Lhasa (alt. 3,660 m) has an annual precipitation of app. four times of Leh or Phyang. Maximum temperatures are about similar to those of Leh, but minimum temperatures are higher than those of /DGDNK7KHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQPLQLPXPDQG maximum temperature is app. 18°C, which is lower than the data given for Ladakh. Purang (alt. PLQWest Tibet has higher precipitation and lower temperatures compared to Lhasa. The climate in Purang is moderate and cold. The amount of precipitation in winter is higher compared to summer. (CD)

### 3.6 Raw material for building purpose

Raw material resources strongly relate to climatic conditions and altitudes. For vernacular archi-WHFWXUHLQJHQHUDOQHDUE\PDWHULDOVZLWKDVKRUWGLVWDQFHRIWUDQVSRUW±LIQHFHVVDU\ZLWKDQLPDOV ±DUHFKRVHQ7KHFKRLFHRIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOVDQGRIDSSURSULDWHPHWKRGVRISURFHVVLQJGHSHQG RQVRFLDOVWDWXVZKLFKLVH[SUHVVHGE\LQFUHDVHGH൵RUWDQGE\LQFUHDVLQJWKH¿QDOEXLOGLQJTXDOity. The following data on wood, earth and stone are summarised for the research area to provide possible interrelations between climate and material resources, and the development of building WHFKQLTXHV

GIS data based map by: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on Vector data (VD) and Tectonic map (TM) DGDSWHGIURP+RGJHV&LWDWLRQVRI9'DQG70DOVRVHH&KDSWHU,;OLVWRILOOXVWUDWLRQV

#### 206 Chapter IV

\$FFRUGLQJWR\*DQVVHUWKH+LPDOD\DVFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWRWKHIROORZLQJgeological belts: Transhimalaya, Higher Himalaya, Lower Himalaya and Siwalik Himalaya. Following a catego-ULVDWLRQDIWHU1HJL ZHFDQ UHGXFHWKLVGLYLVLRQLQWRWKUHHEHOWVFRUUHODWLQJZLWKD biophysical graduation between these belts (Handa 2008b: 130). Map 4.4 is based on a tectonic PDSSXEOLVKHGE\+RGJHV7KH\*HRORJLFDO6XUYH\RIIndia published the following categorisation (2012b: 2, 3).

6KLZDOLNRU6XERU2XWHU+LPDOD\DPWRP³VWUXFWXUDODQGGHQXGDWLRQDOKLOOVVHSD-UDWHGE\VXEODWLWXGLQDOÀDWERWWRPHGYDOOH\V´FI\*6,E


### 3.6.1 Methods of processing raw material for vernacular structures

Today, in remote Himalayan areas, logs are still sawn by hand with a bucksaw (Ger. *Rahmensäge*). This tool needs two workers who alternately pulling the saw. One method in Ladakh involves the log being stabilised in a vertical, slightly inclining position while (as shown in the picture) the two ZRUNHUV±KXVEDQGDQGZLIH±VLWRSSRVLWHHDFKRWKHU)LJ\$QRWKHUPHWKRGLVWKHXVHRID two-men crosscut saw as found in Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh, where the log is kept in a horizontal position and two male workers stand above each other (Fig. 4.23). In both cases, the log is cut at the same time into several boards in a longitudinal direction. An early method of processing the surface of a board, e.g. for historical ceiling boards in Nako in Upper Kinnaur, involved use of an adze. The planks and beams are straight and cut very precisely,134UHTXLULQJDKLJKSURFHVVLQJ H൵RUW7KXVFXWWLQJLVGRQHRQO\WRPHHWUHDOQHHGV,QµVLPSOH¶EXLOGLQJVWUXFWXUHVEHDPVFDQEH found uncut and in some cases even unpeeled (cf. Feiglstorfer 2012a).

*Figures opposite page:*


<sup>134</sup> 7KHHDUO\KLVWRU\RIWKHXVHRIDKDQGVDZPDGHRIEURQ]HLQ(DVW\$VLDJRHVEDFNWRWKH=KRX'\QDVW\± 770 BCE), while the use of a EXFNVDZVWDUWHGLQWKH6RQJ'\QDVW\±&(FI/L=KHQ

+LPDOD\DQFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHV 207

Adobe bricks are usually processed in bottomless moulds (just with four sides) (Fig. 4.24). Sieving is conducted with metal sieves. A traditional method is the use of VLHYHVPDGHRI¿EUHVRUWKHXVH RIWH[WLOHVWRJDLQ¿QHengobe for slurries used for upper layers of wall surfaces. The method of GHVOXGJLQJPD\KDYHDOVREHHQXVHG)HLJOVWRUIHU൵)RUrammed earth walls, shuttering made of boards or wattled willow mats are commonly used (Fig. 4.25). Mortar is applied by hand. Fired bricks are of negligible importance in the research area except for Srinagar, where a particular small brick size, the so-called *"maharaji"* brick, was produced. In the Srinagar District, SOHQWLIXOZRRGUHVRXUFHVDOORZIRUWKH¿ULQJRINLOQV

%RXOGHUVDUHHLWKHUFROOHFWHGZKHQORRVH±HJDVURXQGHGriver stones (Fig. 4.26), which are from DVWDWLFSRLQWRIYLHZOHVVDSSURSULDWHWKDQTXDUULHGDQJXODUVKDSHGVWRQHV±RUWKH\DUHTXDUULHG with simple tools, such as a pickaxe, iron hammer, wedge or crowbar (Atkinson 2002: 267). For DUDQGRPVWRQHZDOOWKHH൵RUWWRGUHVVWKHVWRQHVLVOHVVWKDQLQWKHFDVHRIDVKODUVVTXDUHKHZQ EORFNVZKLFKDUHRIWHQXVHGDVFRUQHUVWRQHVRUIRUOLQHGVWRQHZDOOV)LJ'L൵HUHQWTXDOLties of processing can be distinguished, e.g. a simple dressing as widely used in Lahaul or more sophisticated methods for processing of rectangular hewn blocks. An example of the latter is the %KƯPƗ.ƗOƯ7HPSOHLQSarahan in Himachal Pradesh. The kind of stone plays an essential role LQWKHH൵RUWDQGODERXUFRVWV:HPD\GL൵HUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQrandom stone walls and banded masonry, with or without the use of mortar. The term "banded masonry"IROORZV+RZDUG¶VGHVFULS-WLRQ+RZDUGZLWKD¿UVWOD\HURIODUJHVWRQHVIROORZHGE\DVHFRQGOD\HUIRU¿OOLQJ the gaps and for levelling of the next layer of large stones. Alexander (2011: 35) calls this texture a "galleted rubble texture".

### 3.6.2 Timber

Regions like Chamba, Kashmir or Kinnaur are well known for a long tradition in wood carving and carpentry. The availability of appropriate timber is an essential precondition. One parameter for the availability of wood is the tree line. In arid zones, trees are primarily available in river valleys as groups. All the highest records for treelines in High Asia above 4,850 m consist of Juniperus VSHFLHV)DUMRQ)RXQGHYHQDWPHWUHVLQVRXWKHDVWHUQTibet, the highest tree species known in the Himalayas in general is -XQLSHUXVWLEHWLFD0LHKHHWDO,QWKH following, the most common types of trees used for structural timber in the Western Himalayas are matched with altitude related climate features (Map 4.5). Given in italics are the local names of WUHHVDVFROOHFWHGLQWKH¿HOGDQGDGMXVWHGZLWKOLWHUDWXUH7KHORFDOWHUPVPD\YDU\EHWZHHQGL൵HU-HQWSODFHV)RUDFRPSUHKHQVLYHVXPPDU\RIIXUWKHUORFDOWHUPVFRPSDUH\*DPEOH

### *3.6.2.a Jammu and Kashmir*

### *Ladakh*

 ,QKLJKHUDOWLWXGHVZLWKOHVVSUHFLSLWDWLRQWKDQZHFDQ¿QGLQ/DGDNKLahaul, Spiti, or Upper Kinnaur, i.e. all areas at an altitude of app. 3,100 m and above, willow, poplar, *takpa* (Betula uti-OLV+LQGL*bhujpatra*"white Himalayan birch") and *shukpa* (Juniperus macropoda or Juniperus H[FHOVDLQHimachal Pradesh known as *lewar* or *shur*+DQGD"Himalayan pencil cedar") are commonly used for construction. Throughout the Himalayas, *takpa* is known for its bark, which is used for ÀDWroof insulation between the wooden subconstruction and the

Map 4.5 Forest landcover.

GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on Vector data (VD) and MODIS Land Cover (LC) according to Friedl, Sulla-Menashe (2015). Citations of VD and LC also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

HDUWKOD\HU RQWRS FI)HLJOVWRUIHU ൵'XHWRLWVHODVWLFLW\LWV EUDQFKHVDUHDOVR known for their use for bridges made of twigs. *Takpa* rarely grows below 3,050 m (Gamble Birch forests are found at altitudes between 200 m and 2,000 m, a precondition, which is not dependent on monsoon rains, but on the amount of water occurring during the VQRZPHOW+RO]QHU.ULHFKEDXP\$FFRUGLQJWR1HJLLWLVDVVRFLDWHG with the category of sub-alpine forest.


#### *Kashmir*

Â Kashmir is a centre for wooden architecture and arts. In Kashmir along the rivers Vitasta and Jhelum, pine forests are predominant (Kachru, Thapalyal*Kail* (Pinus wallichiana or 3LQXVH[FHOVD"blue pine") is commonly used for constructions in Kashmir and 3XQMDE\*DPEOH)RULWVXVHIRUSODQNLQJGRRUVZLQGRZVRUIXUQLWXUHLWLVVDLG to be superior to the deodar, since *kail* is not brittle, contains no oil and is free of scent (ibid. 705). Deodar is strongly present in Kashmir (ibid. 710). Throughout the Himalayas, it was commonly used for religious buildings. In Kashmir, besides various other examples, it was used for the 1XQG5LVKL0RVTXHLQChirar-e-Sharif (Kachru, Thapalyal,QZHVWern regions such as Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, deodar grows within a wide altitude range between app. 1,370 and 3,350 m (Handa 2008b: 136). In the area of Jammu and an adjoining part of western Himachal Pradesh, there are sub-tropical semi-desert forests, inter alia, containing *shisham* ('DOEHUJLDVLVVRR1HJL\$WORZHUDOWLWXGHVLQVHFWV endanger wooden building structures. In the lower areas of the Jammu-Kangra region, for example, termites are a problem (Handa 2008b: 164).

#### *3.6.2.b Himachal Pradesh*

#### *Lahaul and Kullu*


#### *Spiti*

Â For 6SLWL9HUPDPHQWLRQVQRUWKHUQVORSHVDVWKHORFDWLRQRI*takpa growth,* and moist irrigated locations for willow and poplar. In the temple of Lalung in Spiti (12th century &(/XF]DQLWVSULPDULO\WZRGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIZRRGZHUHXVHGLH*devdar* and *shukpa*. *Devdar* was used for the ground ÀRRUDQGFRQWDLQVWKHHDUOLHVWVWUXFWXUHIURPWKHth century. For this prestigious structure, this points towards an import of deodar wood from lower areas of Himachal Pradesh. Today, the nearest place for Spiti to collect deodar is Mandi (150 km) or Rampur (100 km) (correspondence with Dechen Lundup in 2015). *Shukpa* was used in the temple of Lalung for the upper ÀRRU7KLVÀRRUZDVDGGHGLQWKHth century and LVPRVWOLNHO\RIORFDORULJLQ7KHXVHRIGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIZRRGZLWKLQRQHEXLOGLQJLVIRXQG not only in Spiti, but is in general rather common in the region.

#### *Kinnaur*

Â In Kinnaur, *shukpa*ZDVFRPPRQO\XVHGIRUUHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHV\*DPEOH6SHFLHV of poplar (e.g. *safedar*) and willow (e.g. *malchang*, 6DOL[ GDSKQRLGHVLQ DULG ]RQHV RIWKH +LPDOD\DV JURZLQJ XS WR P DUH IRXQG KHUH 5R\OH  ,QLahaul, willow is rarely used as wood for construction, but is utilised more commonly in Kinnaur, Spiti, =DQJVNDUDQGLadakh (Interview with Tsering Dorje in 2005).

#### 212 Chapter IV


### *Chamba*

Â In the Chamba District settlements of Chhatrari, Bharmaur, Tisa, and Chamba Town, the presence of highly experienced carpenters (Hindi *badhai*) is widely known (Bharti 2001: 177). In Chamba District, close to Kangra District, one of the main tree species is *FKƯU* (Pinus roxburghii). The area close to Dalhousie is associated with the *EƗQ* tree, and the main species used for structural timber are *kail* and *deodar*. According to Bharti (2001: 185, 186), deodar is the main timber for construction in Chamba (ibid. 177). In the Ravi Valley, for example, pine trees are common, also towards Udaipur and 7ULORNQDWK3RVWHOHWDO

#### *Kangra*

Â In the Gazetteer of the .DQJUD'LVWULFWDUHODWLRQEHWZHHQVSHFLHVDQGDOWLWXGHLVPHQtioned. Trees grow predominantly along the northern slopes of hill ranges (ibid. 26). Most

common is the *FKƯU*ZKLFKJURZVXQGHUGL൵HUHQWFOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVDWDOWLWXGHVEHWZHHQ m and 2,100 m. Its wood is hard. It grows straight and reaches a height of up to 10 m with planks that have a width of up to 60 cm. Above 'KDUDPVDODZH¿QGWKH*rai* (Picea smithiana, "Himalayan spruce"). Here altitude reaches between 2,400 m and 3,200 m. Wood from this altitude is mentioned as inferior to the wood of the *FKƯU* and is used only for the construction of shingles. (ibid. 27) Lower regions of Kangra are much richer in wood, e.g. in *toon* (Gamble 


### *Uttarakhand*

Â In areas west of the Yamuna in Himachal Pradesh and in parts of Uttarakhand, the *toon* (Toona ciliate or &HGUHODWRRQD"red cedar") is commonly used, e.g. as beams. In addition to *deodar* and *FKƯU* it is also used for making planks (Handa 2008b: 148). *Toon* is durable and grows up WRP,WLVDOVRXVHGIRUIXUQLWXUHGRRUSDQHOVDQGFDUYLQJV\*DPEOH

### *3.6.2.c North Pakistan*

### *Gilgit-Baltistan and Kyber Pakhtunkhwa*

Â In a description given by Hunzai and Beg (2005: 54), elaborate decorative timber work is mentioned for Baltistan, using local walnut, mulberry, juniper, cedar, apricot and poplar wood. For .\EHU3DNKWXQNKZDWKHIRUPHU1RUWK:HVWHUQ)URQWLHU6FKDFKHUPHQWLRQVcedar (*deodar* in Urdu and Pashto), blue pine (*pavich*LQ8UGX*biar* in Pashto) and Himalayan poplar in northern areas as the types of wood used for beams. In the Karakorum region, pine, walnut, mulberry and apricot are commonly used for structural elements. In Hunza and Baltistan, juniper is in high demand for beams in the *cator and cribbage*FRQVWUXFWLRQ+XJKHV

### 3.6.3 Stone

According to Map 4.4 showing the tectonic structure of the Western Himalayas within the core re-JLRQRIWKLVVWXG\DQDOORFDWLRQSULPDULO\WRIRXUGL൵HUHQWWHFWRQLF]RQHVEHFRPHVHYLGHQWNorth Pakistan and Ladakh in the area between Leh and Gilgit are located in the Karakorum Terrane, which bellongs to the Transhimalayan zone. The area from =DQJVNDUYLDHDVWHUQLahaul and Spiti to Kinnaur belongs to the Tibetan zone, while the area of western Himachal Pradesh (Chamba and Kangra) belongs to the Greater Himalaya. The area between Srinagar and Udhampur belongs to the Kashmir Basin, which is surrounded by the Tibetan zone.

Â In many parts of the Western Himalayas, a proper stone building material is available (Atkinson \$PRQJWKHVHDUHgranite, gneiss, volcanic rock, sandstone, limestone, dolomite, shale, schist, slate, siltstone, TXDUW]LWH DQG YDULRXV FRQJORPHUDWHV7KH TXDOLW\ IRU EXLOGLQJ purposes between the stones varies, and in certain cases stones must be transported over long GLVWDQFHVWR HQVXUH D FHUWDLQ TXDOLW\7UDQVSRUWWR UHPRWH SODFHVLV VWLOO FRQGXFWHG E\ SDFN DQLPDOV7RGD\VWRQHLVIUHHZKHQLWFDQEHTXDUULHGIURPRQH¶VRZQODQG%HO]


#### *3.6.3.a Stones commonly used as building material*

#### *Slates*


#### *Gypsum and limestone*


\*6,E൵,QHimachal Pradesh, limestone is available as deposits in the districts of Bilaspur, Chamba, Kangra, Kinnaur, Kullu, Mandi, Shimla, Sirmaur and Solan (ibid.). Also for Garhwal, gypsum deposits and the manufacturing of OLPHVWRQHDUH UHSRUWHG \*+ 9HUPD

#### *3.6.3.b Stones following a geographical order*

#### *Jammu and Kashmir*

Â In the Jammu-Kangra region, many of the buildings are made of sandstone (Handa 2008b: 126), which is a commonly used building stone in the Shiwalik Himalaya in Jammu and Kashmir. However, in the Lesser Himalaya, limestone, slates, shales und schists can be found (Negi ±\$VEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOLQJammu and Kashmir, inter alia, granite is used in the Panjal Trap, sandstone is common in the Murrees, marble is used in the region of Jammu, and limestone is prevalent in the .DVKPLU9DOOH\\*6,E)URPKashmir towards Kaghan Valley in North Pakistan, gneiss is reported, though this resource is extinct at the =RML/D From here to Tibet, OLPHVWRQHDQGVFKLVWVDUHSUHYDOHQW\*+,QWKHTranshimalayan =DQJVNDUFU\VWDOOLQHIRUPDWLRQgneiss and JUDQLWHFDQEHIRXQG1HJL,Q/DGDNK± which is part of the Transhimalayan zone, separating it from Jammu and Kashmir (GSI 2012b: ±DODUJHYDULHW\RIVWRQHVH[LVWVLQWHUDOLDgranite (e.g. along the southern slope of the Karakorum), gneiss, schist, shale, limestone (marble in Kupwara and /HK'LVWULFW\*6,E 40), volcanic stones (e.g. in the areas of Shyok or Dras), conglomerates, and ¿QHVHGLPHQWV (e.g. in the ,QGXV)O\VFK]RQHFI1HJL\$FFRUGLQJWRWKH\*HRORJLFDO6XUYH\RIIndia, local building materials in Ladakh include, inter alia, volcanic stones, limestone and granite \*6,E'HSRVLWVRI*arga* stone (highly carbonatic) are known in Mangyu and Phugtal FI)HLJOVWRUIHU

#### *Himachal Pradesh*

Â Geology in Spiti (part of the Transhimalayan zone) is similar to the geology of north-eastern .XOOXEXWGL൵HUVIURPWKHUHVWRIKullu. It contains marine deposits, shale, limestone, Giumal sandstone (Sudershan Vashishtha 2003: 255, 257), and FRQJORPHUDWHV\$WNLQVRQ 208). Most of Lahaul is made up of metamorphic and crystalline rocks. Just a small part close to the crossing of the Bhaga and Chandra Rivers consists of volcanic rocks. (Sudershan Vashishtha 2003: 185) In Kullu, crystalline stones (granite, gneiss, schist) and unfossiliferous rocks are available. Further south, unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks stretch from Chamba via Kangra and Shimla Hills to Garhwal. These consist of limestones, VODWHVTXDUW]LWHVDQGcon-JORPHUDWHVLELG)RUGarhwal, close to \$OPRUD¿QHJUDLQHGTXDUW]LWHVDQGmica schist are present, and at Nainital limestone and clay schist are reported as well as gneiss, sandstone and chlorite-VFKLVW\*+)RUKinnaur, Handa (2008b: 137) mentions the availability of KLJKTXDOLW\VWUXFWXUDOsandstone. In the Sangla Valley, slates, TXDUW]VFKLVWVphyllite, garnetiferous schists, TXDUW]LWHDQGOHQWLFXODUlimestone are reported (Devi et al. 2014: 740).

#### *North Pakistan*

Â In North Pakistan, the use of granodiorites and gneiss is common, along with slate, marble or EDVDOW+XJKHV\$WNLQVRQPHQWLRQVDSUHIHUUHGXVHRIlimestone for Chitral and Afghanistan.

### *West and Central Tibet*

Â In West 7LEHW\$WNLQVRQUHSRUWVlimestone in Ngari and volcanic stone in the area of Lake Manasarowar. Deposits of *arga* stone (see Chapter II) are known in the Purang region. In Central Tibet, granite, slate, schist and TXDUW]VWRQHVDUHFRPPRQO\XVHGIRUFRQstruction (Alexander 2011: 35). From Central Tibet to the source of the rivers Indus and Sutlej, granite, schist, mica-schist, gneiss and beds of highly crystalline limestone are stated (GH 'HSRVLWVRI*arga* (highly carbonatic) are known in the region of Leh and the sur-URXQGLQJDUHD)HLJOVWRUIHU൵

### 3.6.4 Clay

In Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir, clay is traditionally used for a variety of construction and crafts purposes. Places related to clay examination within this study are given in Map 4.6. Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 contain clay samples, which are mentioned in the text. The samples with a sample number were examined at the IAG / BOKU. Data on grain size distribution and bulk and clay mineral analysis are given in Table 4.4, Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 in the Appendix of Chapter ,99DULRXVW\SHVRIFOD\IRUGL൵HUHQWXVHZHUHH[DPLQHGE\WKHDXWKRU


,QRUGHUWRFKDQJHWKHELQGLQJEHKDYLRXURIFOD\GL൵HUHQWDGGLWLYHVDUHWUDGLWLRQDOO\NQRZQLQWKH Himalayas (ibid.). These include anorganic additives, e.g. lime or sand, and organic additives, e.g. ¿EUHVneedles from trees, straw, pieces of twigs, salt, gum, rice starch, or the juice of apricots. In Ladakh, Chamba and Kinnaur, apricots are locally known as *chulli*. The *chulli* (Prunus armeniaca) grows at altitudes between app. 1,200 m and 3,000 m (cf. Kureel et al. 2007: 2). In general, clay is processed in a moistened state and has to dry after being processed. Usually local clay that KDVEHHQVRXUFHGQHDUE\LVXVHG2QO\IRUDSDUWLFXODUSXUSRVHHJFOD\VIRUZDWHUSURR¿QJRID roof, does transport over longer distances occur. Whether clay is used at all for building purposes JHQHUDOO\GHSHQGVRQHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVVXFKDVORFDODYDLODELOLW\WKHTXDOLW\RIWKHUDZ material, and climate conditions, e.g. the amount and strength of precipitation.

&OD\ RI GL൵HUHQW TXDOLWLHV IRU EXLOGLQJ SXUSRVHV LV IRXQG DOO RYHUJammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh. Certain types of clays are known by local terms, and these terms may point WRZDUGVWKHLUSODFHRIRULJLQRUVSHFL¿FSURSHUWLHVDQGSXUSRVH,QWKHIROORZLQJDQRYHUYLHZLV given of clay deposits in Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and .DVKPLUVRDVWR¿QGIXUWKHUUHOD-WLRQVWRRWKHUORFDOO\DYDLODEOHUDZPDWHULDOVDQGEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV6DPSOHVRIFOD\ZHUHFROlected in Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and .DVKPLU5HVXOWVRIWKHVHH[DPLQDWLRQV±FRQGXFWHG DWWKH,\$\*%2.8±DUHSUHVHQWHGEHORZ<sup>135</sup>

<sup>135</sup> See Appendix of Chapter IV for grain size classes and results of bulk and clay mineral analysis.

Map 4.6 The map shows sampling points of clay samples and settlements related to part 3.6.3 (*"*Stone") and part 3.6.4 (*"*Clay") of Chapter IV.

GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on Vector data (VD). Citations of VD also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

Table 4.1 List of clay samples





Table 4.2 List of clay samples







### **Kashmir**

### *3.6.4.a Jammu and Kashmir*

### *Kashmir*


### *Ladakh*


<sup>136</sup> The interior plaster is applied in three layers all using the same red clay: The 1st layer is clay mixed with grass growing at the lake close to the building (known as *kalrun*WKHnd layer is clay mixed with paddy VWUDZWKHrd layer is clay applied after drying of the 2nd layer and mixed with *kalrun*¿QDOO\¿QLVKHGZLWKDWURZHO7KHH[WHULRU plaster (app. 3 cm) is a clay mortar mixed with lime without grass. In side rooms the plaster is made with two layers: The 1st layer is app. 1 cm with mixed VWUDZWKHndOD\HUYHU\¿QHLVDSSFPPL[HGZLWKSDGG\straw.

### *3.6.4.b Himachal Pradesh*

*Chamba*


*Middle Kinnaur*


### *Upper Kinnaur*


### *Spiti*


<sup>137</sup> The village of Lidang has yet not been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

median of 3 μm. A comparison of their bulk and clay mineral properties shows strong similarities. Regarding the grain size distribution, the plaster may be the sieved portion of sample 6053.


### *Lahaul*


*Kangra*

Â In Kangra District, deposits of clay are reported: yellow-coloured clay west of 6KDKSXUOLJKW grey clay in the Middle and Upper Shiwaliks at Khajan, Indpur, Paliana, Kothar (a composition of montmorillonite, kaolin, TXDUW] FDUERQDWHV DQG )HR[LGHV DQGHatli (GSI 2012a: ൵

### *Kullu*

Â In Kullu District, kaolin clay near Bathua used for whitewashing is reported. In Mandi District, a variety of deposits, which are commonly used for plastering and ZKLWHZDVKLQJLVUHSRUWHG clays from Garaich and Negi Nal are suitable for the manufacturing of stoneware. In Shimla District north of Shimla, clay is found and used for the manufacturing of bricks, tiles and pottery. In Sirmaur District, a variety of deposits of varied lacustrine clay is reported and commonly used for making bricks. Some clay pockets contain a kaolin clay and also clay that is VWLFN\ZKHQZHWDQGSRZGHUHGZKHQGU\\*6,D൵

### *3.6.4.c North Pakistan*

### *Hunza and Karakorum region*

Â In Hunza in 1RUWK3DNLVWDQD¿QHJUDLQHGODFXVWULQHFOD\NQRZQDV*damul,* is used for wa-WHUSURR¿QJRIÀDW URRIVDQGFRPSDFWHGÀRRUV +XJKHV Clay in the Karakorum region, used for adobe bricks, is characterised by a high content of silt, sand, TXDUW]ELRWLWH mica and a lack of clay minerals (ibid.).

### 3.7 Discussion

7KHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKHPRXQWDLQVIURPQRUWKZHVWWRVRXWKHDVWLQÀXHQFHVWKHRULHQWDWLRQRIWKH climate zones. Arid, cold and temperate zones follow this pattern in elongated bands. A change IURP]RQHWR]RQHFRUUHODWHVZLWKDFKDQJHRIDOWLWXGHV7KLVLQÀXHQFHVWKHYHJHWDWLRQ]RQHVDQG WKH DYDLODELOLW\ RI SDUWLFXODUWUHHV ,QWXUQWKHVH IDFWRUVLQÀXHQFH DUFKLWHFWXUDO GHYHORSPHQWV which are dependent on the orientation of these zones.

In the arid zone, precipitation is rather low, while in the cold zone we can distinguish between dry and humid regions. Further, in the temperate zone, precipitation also changes between dry and UDWKHUKXPLGDUHDV7KLVJRHVKDQGLQKDQGZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWIURPWKHÀDWHDUWKroof towards the pitched roof covered with wood or stone. This change also follows a north-east to south-west direction within the temperate zone and in the area, where the cold zone [D] changes into a temperate zone [C] (see Map 4.3). This goes hand in hand with the development of a high culture of wooden architecture in the north-west to south-east stretching zone from North Pakistan via Kashmir, Chamba, and Kinnaur into Uttarakhand. This zoning also describes the direction of the increase of structural timber in composite constructions from the north-east towards the south-east and may be mentioned as a prime reason for certain material changes within traditional buildings.

The above given association of trees with particular regions and altitudes shows a relation with a change of the tree population and of a local availability of species of trees. This becomes mainly the case in sparsely wooded higher altitudes. The given tree species are those, which are commonly used for constructions. For elite structures, wood is brought from outside a given region ZLWKDKLJKH൵RUWRIWUDQVSRUW

7KHKLVWRULFDOXVHRIYDULRXVVSHFLHVRIWUHHVGL൵HUVSDUWLDOO\IURPSUHVHQWXVH3ULPDULO\KDUG wood, which grew straight and long, was used, while today poplar and willow have become predominant over mountainous regions from Baltistan over Ladakh, Lahaul and Upper Kinnaur. The high availability of structural timber may have supported its intense use, particularly in Kashmir

and Himachal Pradesh, where, from a historical point of view, use was supported by the agreement of the regional ruler.

Today, large forest areas still exist in +LPDFKDO3UDGHVK2IDWRWDODUHDRINPðIRUHimachal 3UDGHVKNPðDUHFRYHUHGE\GL൵HUHQWVSHFLHVRIGHRGDUNPðE\*kail*NPðE\*FKƯU*, NPðE\¿UVSUXFHNPðE\*VƗO*DQGNPðE\*EƗQ* (GSI 2012a: 38). About one third of the whole area of +LPDFKDO3UDGHVKLVFRYHUHGZLWKIRUHVW±PRVWO\PL[HGIRUHVWVDQGDVPDOO amount of needleleaf forests. This is contrary, e.g. to Ladakh, where in higher arid regions only groups of trees exist.

Most populated are valleys connected to a water supply and timber resources. Stones may be col-OHFWHGDORQJULYHUEHGV\$VWUXFWXUDOO\JRRGVWRQHKDVWREHTXDUULHGDQGLVLQJHQHUDOQRWURXQGHG as stones found in rivers would be. Structural stone is found all over the Western Himalayas in GL൵HUHQWTXDOLWLHV,QVRPHDUHDVRIWKH:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQUHJLRQDQGXSWRWKHYamuna eastwards in 8WWDUDNKDQG±DUHDVZLWKDVWURQJSRSXODWLRQRIGHRGDUWUHHV±DJRRGVWUXFWXUDOVWRQH LVUDUH+DQGD,QVHWWOHPHQWVZKHUHPDWHULDORISDUWLFXODUJRRGTXDOLW\LVTXDUULHGLQ the close vicinity, such as slates in Bharmaur, its popularity in vernacular use is obvious. At such places, thick and large pieces of slate can be found stapled by the villagers along the road or at building sites. The availability of slate in the area close to Leh did not change the vernacular ÀDW roof tradition, since the timber resources for roof timbering to carry heavy slates are too scarce. For wall structures, e.g. for religious structures or fortress structures, inter alia, stones were used for solid walls.

The general content of mica, which we can refer to in the examined clay samples (see Appendix of Chapter IV), may support a favourite use of stone due to its easier cutting. The use of timber implicates, on the one hand, knowledge of movements within building structures and, on the other hand, a possible support of structures made of stone. It may also correlate with the need for a strengthening of the mica-laden stone in solid walls (Handa 2008b: 136). In lower regions, the increase of termites is an indicator for less use of wood and a preference for stone.

For commonly known clays, their location along routes of transport is evident and points towards an economical and collective use. A short distance of transport is in general an important condition for the use of particular clay. On the other hand, clays such as the *tsak,* which is used in Tabo in Spiti for painting, is collected at places, which are located a longer distance away, similar to limestone, which often has to be collected at mountainous sites.

Making of ¿UHGbricks depends much on the availability of proper clay, in addition to the avail-DELOLW\RIZRRGRUSHDWIRU¿ULQJ\$FFRUGLQJWRUHSRUWVE\WKH\*HRORFLFDO6XUYH\RIIndia (GSI DEGHSRVLWVRI¿UHDEOHFOD\IRUWKHFHUDPLFLQGXVWU\DUHIRXQGLQJammu or in the Shimla District.

The samples from Spiti and Kashmir point towards a carbonatic mineral geology in these regions, ZKLFKLQÀXHQFHVWKH SURSHUWLHV RIWKHFOD\\$OVRWKHORZFRQWHQW RI VZHOODEOHFOD\PLQHUDOV ± H[FHSWIRUODFUXVWULQHFOD\V±LQWKHFOD\VRYHUWKHWestern Himalayas determines a technically possible range of application. Rather coarse material in Spiti containing calcite and no swellable minerals shows its proper use for rammed earth. An economic approach makes it necessary to use

#### 226 Chapter IV

the same base material for ramming, bricks and also for SODVWHU7KHDYDLODELOLW\RIGL൵HUHQWNLQGV of clay, e.g. as shown for 7DERPDGHSRVVLEOHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIGL൵HUHQWPL[WXUHVFXVWRPLVHG to particular needs. The use of organic additives shows the deep understanding and high development of locally available material resources. These developments have to be regarded from a local point of view and may change in detail from village to village. The use of local terms for clays points towards their use as rooted in traditional knowledge.

At the high altitudes of Ladakh, an earth building tradition still exists. Connected to the minimal UHVRXUFHVRIZRRGWKLVUHJLRQVKRZVDZHDWKHULQJRIWKHVRLORIDFKDUDFWHULVWLFWKDWGL൵HUVIURP forested areas. In the high-altitude arid zone, transport by glaciers, rivers and wind indicates the JLYHQSURSHUWLHVRIWKHFOD\VDQGWKHDYDLODELOLW\RIVRPHYHU\¿QHDQGVLOW\lacustrine clays (cf. )HLJOVWRUIHU൵

### 4. \$ඌඉൾർඍඌඈൿർඈඇඌඍඋඎർඍංඈඇ

7KHSUHVHQWUHVHDUFKIRFXVHVRQLQGLJHQRXVEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQVZKRVHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOTXDOLWLHV are primarily dependent on local material resources. Application of particular materials follows environmental preconditions, such as climate and local raw material resources, while processing is strongly related to cultural parameters. In the case of changing raw material resources, local WHFKQLTXHVZHUHDGMXVWHG

If possible, solid walls were reinforced with timber ODFLQJWRPDNHWKHPPRUHVWDEOH'L൵HUHQW methods of strengthening solidFRQVWUXFWLRQVZLWKZRRGDVDÀH[LEOHDGGLWLYHZHUHGHYHORSHGDV composite constructions. 6WRQHFOD\DQGZRRGZHUHRSWLPLVHGIRUPXWXDOVXSSRUW7KHGL൵HUHQW environmental parameters for stone, clay and wood in accordance with climate conditions imply DODUJHYDULHW\RIGL൵HUHQWORFDOUHDFWLRQVZKLFKDUHDQHVVHQWLDOSDUWRIGH¿QLQJORFDOidentity. A peculiarity in the :HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DVLVWKHODUJHYDULHW\RIGL൵HUHQWORFDOWUDGLWLRQVEDVHGRQD ODUJHYDULHW\RIGL൵HUHQWQDWXUDOSUHFRQGLWLRQVDQGFXOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHV7KHDLPRIWKLVODVWSDUWRI &KDSWHU,9LVWRGHOYHGHHSHULQWRGL൵HUHQWORFDOYDULDWLRQVLQRUGHUWRJHWFORVHUWRDQXQGHUVWDQGing of regional changes.

In regions with less timber resources, the method of construction was adjusted. Adjusting is not to be mainly understood as simply adding or omitting wood but rather creating a homogenous FRQVWUXFWLRQWKDWIXO¿OVSDUWLFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUDOQHHGV\$WKLJKHUDOWLWXGHVWKHXVHRIFOD\RUVWRQH or both in combination with a less content of wood is obvious, while in lower and more wooded areas with higher precipitation, the content of timber in constructions increases. Regarding these QDWXUDOO\SUHGH¿QHGFLUFXPVWDQFHVZHFDQVWDWHDGHWDLOHGK\SRWKHVLVIRUWKHSUHGRPLQDQFHRI UDZPDWHULDOUHVRXUFHVLQSUHGH¿QLQJORFDOEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV7KHZD\RISURFHVVLQJDQGDVsembling the raw material in contrast is dominated by local cultural traditions. In this respect, this study involves two basic aspects, i.e. natural environmental preconditions, which are more or less ¿[HGDQGORFDOmaterial-cultural traditions, which are adaptable.

Over the last decades, due to continuous changes of and additions to constructions, at a single site GL൵HUHQWWHFKQLTXHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVPD\KDYHEHHQLQWURGXFHG&RQWLQXRXVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRI

WHFKQLTXHVDUHIRXQGDOORYHUWKH+LPDOD\DV7KHUXLQVRIWKH2OG0RQDVWHU\RIChekha in Charado (Tib. Chad kha in Bya ra mdo) in Central Tibet are a Central Tibetan example of such a mixture RIGL൵HUHQWWHFKQLFDODSSOLFDWLRQVDWRQHVLWH7KHPRQDVWHU\ZDVIRXQGHGE\WKHKadampa master -D&KHNKDSD<HVKH'RUMH7LE%\D¶&KDGNKDSD<HVKHVUGRUMH±LQ&(<sup>138</sup> 'L൵HUHQWPHWKRGVRIH[LVWLQJZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQVVLWXDWHGEHVLGHHDFKRWKHULQGLFDWHGL൵HUHQWDJHV of the single constructions. Constructions range from pure rammed earth, adobe bricks as single DQGGRXEOHVKHOOFRQVWUXFWLRQVVWRQHZDOOVZLWKÀDWVWRQHVDQGDUDWKHUWKLQOD\HURIFOD\mortar, and dry stone walls without mortar (cf. Feiglstorfer 2015: 74).

Starting at high altitudes and continuously descending within the given research area, locally predominant wall constructions are categorised and juxtaposed. The chosen examples give evidence RQO\LQDTXDOLWDWLYHEXWQRWLQDTXDQWLWDWLYHFRQWH[W([FHSWIRUWKHUHJLRQRIGilgit-Baltistan, WKHH[DPLQHGUHJLRQVKDYHEHHQYLVLWHGVHYHUDOWLPHVIRU¿HOGUHVHDUFKLQWKH\HDUVEHWZHHQ and 2015. The remaining witnesses of early constructions clearly show local knowledge of a differentiation between various technical methods in using timber. Several of the given examples are elite structures such as fortresses, *shikari*-towers, religious buildings (Buddhist and Hindu WHPSOHVDQGPRVTXHVVKULQHVRUSDODFHV([DPSOHVIRUHimachal Pradesh may date back more than 1,000 years. The given examples, which have been well maintained over centuries, provide an idea of developments in structural engineering in the Himalayan Middle Ages, and leave space for hypothesising on indigenous developments and historical technology transfer. An interest of the builders of elite structures must have been the production of a long lasting shell to protect, e.g. precious religious goods, like wall paintings or sculptures, and to represent a particular social status. 7HFKQLTXHVDQGPDWHULDOVRIKLJKTXDOLW\ZHUHDGMXVWHGWRORFDOSRVVLELOLWLHV

Climate data in the following analysis are given according to *Climate data for cities worldwide* DFFRUGLQJWR.|SSHQDQG\*HLJHU. Basic data for the regional availability correlate with previously given analysis. The single regions (Ladakh, North Pakistan, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh) DUHDQDO\VHGLQWKHJLYHQVHTXHQFH0DS

<sup>138</sup> Available at: http://www.oeaw.ac.at/tibetantumulustradition/sites\_by\_id/0104/

See part 3 of this Chapter and Table 4.3 in the Appendix of Chapter IV.

Map 4.7 Sites related to part 4 of Chapter IV "Aspects of Construction". GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on Vector data (VD). Citations of VD also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

229

### 4.1 Ladakh

This part concerns composite wall constructions containing wood in the province of Ladakh with a closer look at the vernacular architecture in the Indus Valley.

As given in the table with climate data (see Table 4.3 in the Appendix of Chapter IV), the altitude of settlements along the Indus Valley changes from around 3,520 m at Leh, Phyang and Thikse, and decreases by app. 800 m to Kargil with an altitude of app. 2,700 m to the Pakistan border. The average annual temperature in Leh, Phyang and Thikse ranges from 4.7°C to 6.8°C. This is comparable to Spiti, which is located at a similar altitude. Temperatures increase towards Kargil by app. 2°C to 4°C. Compared to North Pakistan, temperatures are close to those in Kargil. In Leh, WKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQDQQXDOPLQLPXPDQGPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUHLV&ZKLFKLVUHODWLYHO\ high. In Kargil, the temperature is even higher at 32°C. The resulting stretching of material is a IDFWRUWREHFRQVLGHUHGLQUHJDUGWRFRPELQDWLRQVRIGL൵HUHQWPDWHULDOVZLWKLQDFRPSRVLWHFRQstruction. Annual precipitation increases in Leh at around 100 mm, and moving towards Kargil, precipitation is about three times higher. Towards North Pakistan, it increases slightly compared to Leh. Snowfall can already start in October and last until April. Snowfall has also been recorded at passes during the summer months. Extreme temperature may decrease below -40°C and increase above 30°C. Traditional architecture is not prepared for strong rainfall such as occurred in 2010. At this time small creeks became powerful streams that swept away trees and rocks, forming damaging mud slides.

Correlating with the given climate data, the timber population for building constructions in Ladakh is low compared to the environmental conditions of the adjoining territories Khyber Pakthunkhwa, Lahaul and .DVKPLUVHH0DS7KHVHFRQGLWLRQVDUHUHÀHFWHGLQWKHYHUQDFXODUDUFKLWHFWXUH of /DGDNK,QUHFHQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVVLPLODUWRWUDGLWLRQDOEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDGREHbricks were SULPDULO\XVHGWKHXVHRIWLPEHUZDVwidely neglected. In contrast, regarding historical composite wall constructions, the use of timber was widely known, as shown in the following research on historical structures.

The traditional roof construction in Ladakh is a ÀDWroof made of clay on an organic layer. In arid zones the ÀDWroof is the predominant roof form. The upper and heavy constructive layer is in most cases a compressed earth construction, which is typically constructed using several layers of a GL൵HUHQWKRPRJHQHLW\7KHXSSHUOD\HULVWKHZDWHUEHDULQJOD\HUZKLFKLVSUHSDUHGDFFRUGLQJWR particular local methods (see material analysis in Chapter III). In various areas of the Himalayas, some types of clay used for the upper layers are easily repaired, for example, with a silty clay known as *markalak*. If this is not the case, at least the upper layer has to be replaced after several years as soon as the roof starts to leak. At this point, a concern is the possibility of overstraining the timber subconstruction in the case that the old soaked clay is not exchanged, but instead new heavy material is loaded on top. In several cases, damage to the subconstruction was found and attributed to this kind of continuous overloading.

µ6LPSOH¶WLPEHUlacing (horizontal timber straps along wall faces)

This WHFKQLTXHXVHVWKHWLPEHUVDVVFDQWOLQJSODFHGRQVWRQHRUbrick walls, horizontally running along the facade. No cross-pieces are evident. Wooden lacing is in general made of cut wooden beams. Their use in an uncut form or even with bark would not enable the necessary friction resistance between the wood and the adjoining stone or brick.

With this kind of construction, the adobe bricks are the primary load-bearing part and not the wooden component, as would be the case with a much higher content of wood. A reason for the XVHRIWKHµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUlacing is its impact as a crack stopper.140 In the case of static movements ZLWKLQWKHZDOOHLWKHUE\ZDOOVHWWLQJVRUGXHWRHDUWKTXDNHVWKHVHLQOD\VDYRLGFUDFNVFURVVLQJ along the whole height of the wall and destruction of the wall. In the case of using a 'ODGGHU¶OLNH system as shown with the following WHFKQLTXHDGULIWLQJDSDUWRIWKHZDOOFDQDOVREHDYRLGHG

7KHUHDUHWZRZD\VWRXVHWKLVNLQGRIµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUlacing: (a) as a simple inlay or (b) as a ring beam.

a) Single beams are laid, and the lacing does not work as a ring beam (Fig. 4.28). It acts as a crack stopper and as a levelling layer for the following top row of bricks or stones. As a levelling layer it also impedes a collapse of the masonry. In this function, it is commonly used in plinths of stone walls and in adobe brick walls.

b) The lacing as a ring beam needs a connection between the single runner beams along the facade, at the corners, for example, by using wooden SHJV)LJ(൵HFWVRIH[WHUQDOIRUFHV GXHWRHDUWKTXDNHVRUXQHYHQVXEVLGLQJVRIZDOOVDQGDOVRLQWHUQDOIRUFHVGXHWRWKHZDOO¶VGHDG load related to its height are reduced. The wooden inlays also act as a reducer of the buckling length along the height of the wall. It stabilises the whole structure and not just the single wall. Drifting inwards is prevented by the existence of ÀRRUDQGroof constructions acting as stabilising plates. Such ring beams may be erected on the ÀRRUOHYHODQGFRPELQHGZLWKWKHÀRRUEHDPV to avoid a drifting outwards of parts of walls.

+RZDUGGL൵HUVWKHVL]HRIWKHXVHGWLPEHUVIRUIRUWUHVVFRQVWUXFWLRQVDFFRUGLQJWR their use: for a banded texture timber, width is up to 25 cm, and for a random texture wall, width is app. 10 cm. His description that adjacent timbers may be simply butted together or joined by halving joints, which are sometimes GRZHOSHJJHGSRLQWVWRZDUGVWKHWLPEHUV¶XVHDVµVLPSOH¶ lacings without a primary static function as ring beams. An early example of this WHFKQLTXHLVGHscribed with mixed-stone masonry with timber lacing at the tower of +DQNDULQ=DQJVNDUGDWLQJ to the 12th/13th century (Devers, Vernier 2011: 85).

### 4.1.2 µ/DGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing

This WHFKQLTXH FRQVLVWV RI UXQQHU EHDPV SODFHG LQ SDLUV DORQJ WKH LQ DQG RXWVLGH IDFHV RI D wall (see Fig. 4.20). They are connected by cross-pieces and stabilised by the masonry on top (Langenbach 2010: 2). It is similar to the system known as *taq* in Kashmir. The Kashmir version LQFRQWUDVWVKRZVDµODGGHU¶FRQVLVWLQJRIWZRIDFLQJEHDPVDERYHHDFKRWKHUZLWKWKHÀRRUEHDPV in-between. The WHFKQLTXHFRPPRQO\XVHGLQ/DGDNKVKRZVDµODGGHU¶ZLWKRQO\RQHIDFLQJEHDP along the facade.

<sup>140</sup> :HRIWHQ¿QGVXFKcrack stoppers above wall openings to strengthen wall corners. Crack stoppers consist of runner beams along the surface of a wall. This prevents cracks disseminating over a wider area of the wall.

Generally, the heads of the cross-pieces and the exterior beams running along the facade are vis-LEOHIURPRXWVLGHWKHEXLOGLQJµ/DGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHÀRRUEHDPVPDUN the position of the storeys, as long as they are not covered along the facades. In most cases the runner beams are scantlings, while the cross-beams may also be round in shape. In addition to the EHDPV¶IXQFWLRQDVcrack stoppers and levelling support for the following row of bricks or stones, WZRFURVVLQJµODGGHUV¶PD\HDVLO\EHFORVHGDWWKHEXLOGLQJ¶VFRUQHUVDQGDFWDVDring beam. Since the timber ODFLQJFRYHUVWKHZKROHZLGWKRIWKHZDOOLWLVPRUHH൶FLHQWDVDVWDELOLVHUWKDQµVLP-SOH¶WLPEHUlacings (as mentioned above).

### 4.1.3 Wattle and daub

Apart from timber lacing constructions, /DGDNKLVKRPHWRRWKHUFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXHVWKDWXVH wood. Wattled mats are widely used and often made of willow branches. A traditional use of such mats is as shuttering for UDPPHGHDUWKZDOOVDVVKRZQLQDSLFWXUHE\.KRVOD)LJ from Padum in =DQJVNDU,QDQLQWHUYLHZLQZLWK0U:DQJFKXNLQLeh, he mentioned the uppermost storey of the Sumtseg in Alchi (c. 11th century CE) having been built as a wattle and daub construction (Interview with Mr. Wangchuk in November 2005). He supposed that such a lighter weight construction WHFKQLTXHZDVFKRVHQEHFDXVHRIWKHUHGXFWLRQRIWKHORDGRQWRSRI WKHWZRVWRUH\VDQGDOVRWKHUHGXFHGH൵RUWQHHGHGIRUOLIWLQJWKHPDWHULDO

### 4.1.4 Bracing of rammed earth lintels

Another composite WHFKQLTXHXVLQJZRRGLVNQRZQE\LWVXVHDVWHQVLOHUHLQIRUFHPHQWRIrammed HDUWKOLQWHOV )LJ'XULQJ¿HOG VXUYH\DWDQHQWUDQFHWRWKHFHQWUDOWRZHURIWKH IRUWUHVV in 6DVSROIRUIXUWKHUGHVFULSWLRQRIWKLVIRUWUHVVVHH+RZDUG൵6RQDP:DQJFKXN pointed towards the existence of bendable and elastic twigs (Interview with Sonam Wangchuk in August 2011). Before ramming, these twigs were laid into the clay. This WHFKQLTXHLVDOVRNQRZQ for recent rammed earth constructions, in particular at the corners and along the edges of the rammed layer.

### 4.1.5 Investigated objects

#### *Nyarma, Temple VIa*

\$OW¶´1¶´(8SXQWLOQRZWKLVEXLOGLQJKDVQRWEHHQGDWHG)LJ ,WPD\GDWHEDFNWRWKHHQGRIWKH¿UVWPLOOHQQLXPLIHUHFWHGWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHPDLQWHPple. Along the eastern adobe brick wall, a notch for the former position of a timber lacing was found. The thickness of the wall is app. 115 cm (cf. Feiglstorfer 2011: 8, 28).

Fig. 4.30 (Left) Saspol. Ladakh. Rammed earth lintel of an entrance gate of the fortress reinforced with twigs. Fig. 4.31 (Right) Nyarma. Ladakh. Structure in front of the *tsuglagkhang* with notches of former timber lacing.

#### *Leh, Old Town*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(+RXVHVLQWKH2OG7RZQRILeh, located at the foot of the palace (foundation date around 1600 CE), are built of stone and clay using dif-IHUHQWFRPSRVLWHWHFKQLTXHVLQFOXGLQJFRPSRQHQWVRIWLPEHUlacing. Several of the housing structures in the old town of /HKVKRZGL൵HUHQWWHFKQLTXHVZLWKLQRQHDQGWKHVDPHVWUXFWXUH

,QDIDFDGHDVVKRZQRQ)LJWKHXVHRIµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUlacings connected to each other by KDOYHGMRLQWVLVHYLGHQW)LJV7KLVH[DPSOHVKRZVWKHH൵HFWRIWLPEHUlacings as crack stoppers. Below the upper storey, several cracks end at the lacing. The ring beam is laid between a stone basement and an adobe brick wall on top. Lintels project a long distance into the laterally adjoining stone wall. Thereby, they act as crack stoppers, in particular in the corners of the window openings. The banded stone walls are made with clay mortar. Using stone for the plinth results in a higher strength thereof compared to adobe bricks. The latter, in contrast, are of less weight and easier to carry on top.

#### *Wanla, Fortress tower*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(As an example, on top of the ridge where the temple is situated, a tower-shaped building of three storeys made of stone faces north-west. It may be dated to the 11thFHQWXU\+RZDUG\$ORQJLWVSOLQWKRQWKHQRUWKZHVWVLGHD NLQGRIUHWDLQLQJZDOOZLWKDµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUlacing was used. In this case, the primary function of the wood is to hold the front wall together and to avoid lateral outside drift.

#### *Leh Palace*

\$OWP¶57.52"N, 77°35¶"E. Along the southern front of the palace of Leh, ZHFDQREVHUYHVL[VWRUH\V-HVW6DQGD\7KHIURQWZDOOWDSHUVIURPDZLGWKRIDSS 1.75 m at the base to app. 0.5 m at its top. For the walls in the lower storeys, granite stone was

Fig. 4.32 (Left) Leh. Stone wall in the Old Town topped with an earth wall, both using timber lacing as crack stopper.

used and adobe bricks for the upper storeys. For the lower levels in a vertical distance of app. 3 m, 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing made of *shukpa* was introduced and connected through the wall with round cross-pieces. (ibid.)

#### *Basgo, Serzang Lhakhang*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. The stone basement of the Serzang Lhakhang in Basgo has a height of app. 2 m at the south wall and carries an adobe brick wall on top. Two 'ODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQVDUHLQWURGXFHGZLWKLQWKHVWRQHEDVHPHQWDQGWZRIXUWKHUZLWKLQ the adobe brick wall. Most of the cross-pieces are round-shaped. They are not related to the position of a ÀRRU7KHZLGWKRIWKHZDOOLVDSSFP+RZDUGDVVRFLDWHVWKLV temple with the reign of King 'UDJSD%XP7LE\*UDJVSDEXP%HOOLQLJLYHVWKH WLPHRIKLVUHLJQDVURXJKO\±

### *Timogang, Maitreya Lhakhang and palace*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(7KHMaitreya Lhakhang and the opposite located palace which are both close to the fortress of Timogang, were built with a similar 'ODGGHU¶ like timber lacing WHFKQLTXHDVZHFDQ¿QGLQWKHSerzang Lhakhang in Basgo. Both structures DUHGDWHGWRWKHVDPHEXLOGLQJSHULRG+RZDUG7KHSerzang Lhakhang in Basgo, the Maitreya Lhakhang and the palace, which in Timogang were built with random texture and clay mortared stone (ibid).

### *Spituk Monastery*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Along parts of the facades of the monastery in Spituk, similar 'ODGGHU¶OLNHODFLQJVZLWKURXQGcross-pieces were used. The monastery was rebuilt in the second half of the 15th century during the reign of King Dragpa Bum (Bellini 2014: 226). In contrast to the main building, the *gönkhang* ("SURWHFWRUV¶FKDSHO"), which is much smaller, does not show any timber lacing. The walls are built with a high random stone plinth and an adobe brick wall on top. Along the south facade of the main monastery, the stone plinth reaches partially up to the level of the ground ÀRRUZKLFKLVXSWRDSSPDERYHJURXQG7KH walls of the three storeys on top are made with adobe bricks. In each ÀRRUDWLPEHUlacing was introduced. The lacing supports the ÀRRUEHDPVZKLFKSURMHFWRYHUWKHIURQWRIWKHIDFDGH\$ ODFLQJZDVLQWURGXFHGDVDÀH[LEOHSDUWLWLRQOD\HUEHWZHHQWKHVWRQHEDVHPHQWDQGWKHDGREH wall on its top.

#### *Phyang Monastery*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. The walls of the main building of the Phyang Monastery (founded in the 16th century) show a plinth going up to the second ÀRRU7KH\DUH made of random stone with mortar. The two upper storeys on top of the stone plinth are made of adobe bricks (Figs. 4.35, 4.36). Similar to the given example of Spituk, the 'ODGGHU¶OLNH lacings are at ÀRRUOHYHO7KHZDOOWKLFNQHVVDORQJWKHZHVWIDFDGHLVDSSFPRQWKHnd ÀRRU Stone walls on the ground level reach up to 150 cm. In some of the cross-pieces, a notch is cut to improve their connection with the front facing beams. Halving lap joints connect them.

#### *Skurbuchan Khar*

\$OW P ¶"1 ¶"E. In front of the rammed earth defence tower, an extension towards the Indus River was built with random stone walls. Their round shape points to them being brought from the riverbed below. The rounding of the stones reduces the stability of the bond. A part of the front of the whole structure was made with angular rubble stone. Each of the single horizontal sections of the stone walls was individually made with 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacings (Fig. 4.37). Between these wall sections, the single lacings are not connected to each other. At the corners the lacings were connected with corner half lap joints. Round FURVVSLHFHVKROGWKHIDFLQJUXQQHUEHDPVLQSRVLWLRQE\DSSO\LQJWZRGL൵HUHQWPHWKods. One method is to use a lap joint, similar to what is seen in Phyang. The other method is WR¿[WKHFURVVSLHFHZLWKZDOOEUDFNHWVVKHDUNH\V±DNLQGRIwooden nail (or stick). In the latter case, with some examples the cross-piece was laid into a notch in the upper surface of the IURQWEHDPSRVVLEO\WRNHHSWKHOHYHOIRUWKHVWRQHZDOODERYHLQRQHOLQH)LJV The width of the rammed earth entrance wall leading to the temple is 72 cm, and the width of WKHHQWUDQFHZDOOPDGHRIVWRQHDQGOHDGLQJWRWKHDQWHFKDPEHULVFP

#### *Saspol Monastery*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. Along the outer face of the rear wall of the towerlike part of the Saspol Monastery, the use of 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing is evident. Due to an uneven and whitewashed surface it is not easy to detect. It shows fewer cross-pieces than the previously mentioned examples.

Fig. 4.35 Phyang. Two storeys with stone walls topped with two storeys of adobe brick walls. Timber lacing at ÀRRU level carries the ÀRRUEHDPV\$ORQJWKH facade runner beams are connected to halving joints.

Fig. 4.36 Phyang. Floor beams are connected to the runner beams by lap joints.

Fig. 4.37 (Top) Skurbuchan Khar. Timber lacing in the lower stone part of the wall. Fig. 4.38 (Bottom, left) Skurbuchan Khar. Corner half lap joint. )LJ%RWWRPULJKWSkurbuchan Khar. Wall bracket (shear keys).

#### *Chigtan Castle*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. The castle dating back to possibly the 16th/17th FHQWXU\VKRZVVHYHUDOVWDJHVDQGWHFKQLTXHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQ FI.KDQHWDO൵ 7ZRRIWKHVHWHFKQLTXHVVKRZGL൵HUHQWZD\VRIXVLQJWLPEHULQcomposite constructions: (a) situated in the core of the castle with closely-laid timbers and (b) situated with timbers laid at a greater distance from each other. According to Khan et al. (2014: 266), the latter (i.e. con-VWUXFWLRQEFKURQRORJLFDOO\IROORZVWKH¿UVWPHQWLRQHGZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQD)UDQFNH Plates XLIIa and XLIIIa) shows the position and also a detail of the closely-laid stone-timber construction (a), while parts of the latter construction (b) still partially exist (Fig. 4.40).

#### C o n s t r u c t i o n ( a ) :

The closely-laid timber construction shows traces of a building tradition using more wood, a WHFKQLTXHWKDWLV FRPPRQLQ ZRRGHG ]RQHV7KLV SRLQWVWRZDUGV D KLJKHU DYDLODELOLW\ RI wood. Using 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing with round cross-pieces connected using lap joints is widely known for Ladakh constructions (see above). In this regard, the structure within the castle of &KLJWDQIROORZVDVLPLODUSDWWHUQZLWKDGL൵HUHQFHEHLQJWKDWWKHWLPEHUVZHUHODLGDW a much closer vertical distance to each other (based on proportions in the picture, the distance between the timbers can roughly be estimated between 30 cm to 40 cm). The stones show a ZHOOGUHVVHGRXWHUVXUIDFH7KH\DUHUHODWLYHO\ÀDWDQGORQJDQGLQWKLVDVSHFWVLPLODUWRWKH timber-laced outer walls of &KLJWDQ&DVWOHVHHFRQVWUXFWLRQE)LJ7KH\DUHODLGLQD thick mortar bed. This WHFKQLTXHLQFUHDVHVWKHVWDELOLW\RIWKHVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGWRJHWKHU ZLWKWKHFORVHO\ODLGWLPEHUVWKHEXLOGHUV¶LQWHQWLRQRIJLYLQJWKHLQQHUFRUHRIWKHFDVWOHD VXSHULRUVWUHQJWKEHFRPHVHYLGHQW(DVLO\FXWWLQJWKHVWRQHLQWRWKLVÀDWVKDSHLVHQDEOHGE\LWV mineralogical composition.

What this construction has primarily in common with vernacular composite constructions in the northern adjoining region of Gilgit-Baltistan (see below) is the increased use of wood, but not necessarily the WHFKQLTXHLWVHOIDVPHQWLRQHGLQ.KDQHWDO ([DPSOHV like the Kharmag Castle141 follow a *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHZKLFKLVFRPPRQLQWKH region of %DOWLVWDQVHHEHORZDQGVLPLODUWRWKHWHFKQLTXHVDSSOLHGDWWKHIRUWUHVVHVRIBaltit or 6KLJDU7KH\VHHPEDVLFDOO\WREHDGL൵HUHQWW\SHRIFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHDVLVWKHFDVH in the closely-laid composite construction (a) in &KLJWDQ\$VIDUDVFDQEHVHHQLQ)UDQFNH¶V detailed photograph of a piece of the facade of this building, there is no evidence of a *cribbage* structure and the facing beams are simply resting on the stone walls. A tapering of this wall, according to Tibetan building tradition, cannot be excluded.

#### C o n s t r u c t i o n ( b ) :

Parts of the outer walls of the castle are still standing in-between a big amount of rubble from collapsed walls (Figs. 4.41, 4.42). At the time of visit in 2011, it was possible to enter the western part of the fortress for observations. Some of the free standing walls are still of a height of more than 6 m, of which the upper part of app. 2 m to 3 m is made of adobe bricks placed on the stone wall below. Parts of these free standing stone walls continue downwards as retaining walls. The total height (= plinth and retaining wall together) rises up to app. 10 m above the rubble-covered ground. From downhill, when approximating the castle, these walls impressively rise against the sky.

<sup>141</sup> Compare photographs at http://www.tibet-encyclopaedia.de, access: 05/2016.

Fig. 4.40 Chigtan. Fortress made of rubble stone.

Fig. 4.41 Chigtan. Fortress. The stones DUHUHODWLYHO\ÀDW&RUQHUhalf lap joint.

Fig. 4.42 Chigtan. Fortress. Timbers are laid on a plane stone level and covered E\RQHOD\HURIÀDWVWRQHV6XUURXQGLQJ stones are pressed to the timber using a clay mortar.

6RPHRIWKHVHZDOOVVKRZDWDSHULQJWKDWZHNQRZIURP7LEHWDQVWUXFWXUHVµ/DGGHU¶OLNHWLPber ODFLQJFDQVWLOOEHIRXQGDORQJWKHZHVWHUQDQGVRXWKHUQÀDQNVRIWKHFDVWOHWKRXJKOHVV DORQJWKHHDVWHUQÀDQN7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHZDOOVLVDUDQGRPGRXEOHVKHOOVWRQHVWUXFWXUH ZLWKDQLQQHUFRUH¿OOHGZLWKUXEEOH6RPHRIWKHVWRQHVDUHUDWKHUÀDWDQGRIDNLQGZHPD\ DOVR¿QGLQDZDOOVWUXFWXUHD3DUWLFXODUO\WKHVWRQHVZKLFKDUHRQWRSRUEHORZERUGHULQJWKH timber lacing, are relatively long and well-processed. The stones are laid in a mortar bed. The lacings are connected with halving lap joints. The round cross-pieces are connected with lap joints similar to the ones found at the closely laid timber wall structure (a). In both structures, they are also laid rather tightly to each other (at structure (b) with a distance of app. 60 cm to 80 cm). Wall thickness ranges between app. 40 cm and 60 cm. For small wall openings, lintels are made of stone, and for longer lintels wood is used.

#### Chigtan Monastery

Fragments of several adobe brick walls of the former &KLJWDQ0RQDVWHU\DUHORFDWHGLQWRGD\¶V village of Sgang, which is in the close vicinity of the castle of Chigtan, located in a plain area )LJV)UDQFNH3ODWH;/,,VKRZVWKHChigtan Monastery in a photograph, and it resembles in shape, topography and mountain rocks in the background the ruins, which the author found in the village of Sgang (local pronounciation).142)UDQFNHVWDWHV WKHWHPSOH¶VVL]HWREH[SDFHVDSS[P143 with a height of 24 ft (app. 7.3 P7KHLQWHULRUVL]HRIWKHPHDVXUHGWHPSOHLVDIWHUFRQYHUVLRQLQWRSDFHVSDFHVP x 16.6 paces (12.7 m), which does not prove identicalness with the taken measurements. The entrance porch is of a lower height than the temple chamber.

)URPWKHSRLQWRIFRQVWUXFWLRQWKLVWHPSOH±LQSDUWLFXODUUHPDLQVRILWVEHVWSUHVHUYHGZDOO VHH)LJ±LVRILPSRUWDQFHIRUIXUWKHUREVHUYDWLRQV,WVKRZVDWLPEHUlaced structure LQDQDGREHZDOORIDZLGWKRIDSSFP7KLVHTXDOVWKHOHQJWKRIWZRbricks (brick size [[FP )LJV7KHZDOO¶V IDFDGHLVGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHVHFWLRQVE\WKH KRUL]RQWDOO\UXQQLQJODFLQJV¶SRVLWLRQV7RGD\QRWLPEHUremains and only the notches of the former runner beams are left. The wall is vertically straight and shows no tapering. A kind of GRXEOHVKHOOFRQVWUXFWLRQZLWKLQ¿OORISLHFHVRIFOD\DQGVPDOOVWRQHVUHVHPEOHVDWHFKQLTXH known from the temples of Nyarma144 and also from Ladakh stone constructions. Regarding the 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing and the unusually thin West Tibetan adobe EULFNZDOO±ZKLFKLV DOVRPXFKPRUHVLPLODUWRVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQV±VWUXFWXUDOVLPLODULWLHVWRWKHVWRQHZDOOVIRXQG at Chigtan Castle can be hypothetically stated (see Chigtan Castle construction b). Francke GDWHVWKLVWHPSOHK\SRWKHWLFDOO\WRWKHKadampa period in the 11th century CE, i.e. at least 500 to 600 years earlier than the construction of the castle of Chigtan. The transfer of SDUWLFXODUWHFKQLTXHVIURPVWRQHWRHDUWKFRQVWUXFWLRQVUHJDUGLQJZDOOWKLFNQHVVDQGWKHXVH of timber lacing is known from other examples in cultural transfer zones (e.g. see afore-given explanations for Mandriza in Bulgaria in the context of a transfer zone). Concerning the walls of the Chigtan Temple, the basic features can be found at various early West Tibetan religious VWUXFWXUHVEXWFHUWDLQLQÀXHQFHVSRLQWWRZDUGVDQDGDSWLRQRIWHFKQLTXHVZKLFKPD\GHULYH IURPWKLVDQGRUDGMRLQLQJUHJLRQVSRVVLEO\XSWRDERXW\HDUVDJR

<sup>142</sup> Brick bonds of early temples in Ladakh were shown on a poster presented by the author at the TERRA 2008 conference in Bamako.

<sup>143</sup> The conversion from paces into metres was made using the factor 0.75. This remains hypothetical since for this PHDVXUHPHQWJLYHQE\)UDQFNHKLVGH¿QLWLRQRISDFHVUHPDLQVXQFOHDU

<sup>144</sup> Methods of construction were presented by the author at the TERRA 2016 conference in Lyon.

Fig. 4.43 Chigtan (Sgang). View from the south onto the ruins of a temple with notches of former timber lacing.

Fig. 4.44 Chigtan (Sgang). Ground plan.

Fig. 4.45 Chigtan (Sgang) (Left). View from the former verandah onto the interior surface of a wall. Fig. 4.46 Chigtan (6JDQJ5LJKW'RXEOHOHDIZDOO¿OOHG with clay mortar.

#### 4.2 North Pakistan and Nuristan

This part concerns composite wall constructions containing wood in the province Gilgit-Baltistan with a closer look at the vernacular architecture in the valleys of Hunza and Indus and in the province Khyber Pakthunkhwa, with a closer look into the Swat Valley. The province of Nuristan, which is located in eastern Afghanistan, is mentioned as a comparison. In 2006, the author con-GXFWHG¿HOG UHVHDUFKLQWKH YDOOH\Vof Swat and Kunar. For data on the architecture in Gilgit-Baltistan and Nuristan, the author is dependent on literature sources and personal information.

As given in the table with climate data, the altitude of settlements along the valleys Indus and Hunza (e.g. Baltit with an altitude of 2,430 m) is roughly 1,000 m below settled areas in Central Ladakh. The altitude of Kalam, with an altitude of 2,000 m, is even 1,400 m lower. From Kalam to the south in the direction of the Swat Valley towards 0LQJRUDDOWPDOWLWXGHGHFUHDVHV rapidly. At app. 4°C, the average annual temperature in Gilgit-Baltistan is above the comparable data of Leh, while at .DODPWKHGL൵HUHQFHWRLeh is already app. 8°C. Annual precipitation is higher in the Indus and Hunza Valleys compared to Leh, while the precipitation in Kalam is more than four times compared to Baltit or Khaplu. Compared to Leh, maximum temperatures are higher in the Indus and +XQ]D9DOOH\VLQ3DNLVWDQ7KHVHGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQBaltistan and Ladakh become much smaller when compared with western parts of Ladakh, i.e. in the area of Kargil (alt. 2,700 m). The climate conditions in the valleys Hunza, Indus and Swat may explain the higher population of timber as compared to most places in Ladakh. This fact implicates a KLJKHUDPRXQWRIZRRGXVHGLQEXLOGLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGE\WKDWDGL൵HUHQWGHYHORSPHQWRI EXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV&RQFHUQLQJDUHJLRQDOW\SHRIURRIFRQVWUXFWLRQDÀDWroof is the traditional roof in Gilgit-Baltistan and Khyber Pakthunkhwa, and also further west in Nuristan.

Fig. 4.47 System of a *bhatar* construction. CAD: Martin Pospichal. Details provided by the author.

### 4.2.1 *Bhatar*

At the *bhatar* construction, the 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing is not only at ÀRRUOHYHOEXWDWDFHUtain distance along the whole height of the wall (Fig. 4.47). The vertical distance between the WLPEHUODFLQJVUDQJHVEHWZHHQFPDQGFP%HDPVDUHLQSUR¿OHEHWZHHQ[FPDQG 12 x 12 cm, and the facing runner beams are connected with FURVVSLHFHVHYHU\FPWRFP 6FKDFKHUStone structures are made with or without mortar. Cross-pieces are in general placed below the runner beams (ibid). In contrast to the *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHVHHEH-ORZWKHYHUWLFDOµFROXPQ¶OLNHWLPEHUstone structures (*cribbage*) are missing and just the *cator*construction remains. Vertical timber elements are also not used. Commonly used timbers include deodar, blue pine and, at higher altitudes, also poplar (ibid.).

In Kalam and the surrounding area, the main construction of vernacular buildings is the 'ODGGHU¶ like timber lacing in combination with stone walls (Fig. 4.48). This WHFKQLTXHLVORFDOO\NQRZQ as *bhatar*145 and is similar to the 'ODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQDWÀRRUOHYHO,Q,QGLDQKashmir, this WHFKQLTXHLV NQRZQ DV*taq*, in Turkey as *hatil* or *dugmeli* 6FKDFKHU +XJKHV E Langenbach 2007), and in the Greek Middle Ages as *imantodi*. In North Pakistan, it is commonly used between Chitral in the west to Besham in the east, in Nuristan and in the northern provinces RI3DNLVWDQ6FKDFKHU,QKeshtagrom in 1XULVWDQ(GHOEHUJVKRZVH[DPSOHVRI

<sup>145</sup> 6FKDFKHUGHVFULEHVWKH*bhatar*, on the one hand, as wooden laths reinforcing a stone wall and, on the other hand, as the whole construction, which includes this kind of timber lacing.

Fig. 4.48 Kalam. North Pakistan. *Bhatar* construction.

)LJNuristan. Afghanistan. System of a *SLN¶nj* construction. &\$'0DUWLQ3RVSLFKDO'HWDLOVSURYLGHGE\WKHDXWKRUDFFRUGLQJWRDSLFWXUHJLYHQLQ(GHOEHUJ

'ODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQVZLWKDERXWWZROD\HUVRIVWRQHVDERYHWKH UXQQHUEHDPVQRWFKHGDW the corners. The stones are described as being rendered with clay, while the runner beams (Kt. *PDNĜ¶LN*) are placed without such a rendering.

A common tradition for making walls is mentioned with the *SLN¶nj*:JFRQVWUXFWLRQ)LJ The *SLN¶nj* or *SLN¶njnakur'ä* construction resembles the *bhatar* construction as it also changes OD\HUZLVHEHWZHHQZRRGHQUXQQHUEHDPVDQGVWRQHFOD\LQ¿OO+RZHYHUVWULNLQJGL൵HUHQFHVGR exist: The layers of timber runners (Wg. *EDQƝ*) are not laid as pairs but rather as single beams and are kept in position by vertical poles (Wg. *SLN¶nj*) at the inside and outside of the walls. These poles pass through wooden clamps (Wg. *nakur'ä*) that protrude from the wall both inside and outside. FI(GHOEHUJ൵6XFKSROHVDUHUDUHO\XVHGLQHimachal Pradesh, while in Uttarakhand they appear as wall brackets or shear keys to stabilise walls.

### 4.2.2 *Cator and cribbage*

A traditional WHFKQLTXHLQWKLVUHJLRQLVWKHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHµODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUlacing (known as *cator*DVWKHKRUL]RQWDOFRPSRQHQW±DVPHQWLRQHGIRUVWUXFWXUHVLQ/DGDNK±ZLWKDVWRQH ¿OOHGWLPEHUcolumn-like system (*cribbage*) as the vertical component (Fig. 4.50). In the ground SODQVTXDUHVKDSHGFROXPQOLNHFRPSRQHQWVNQRZQDV*cribbage*146) are made by piling up logs WZRE\WZRZLWKHDFKOD\HUURWDWHGE\)RULadakh, the use of the *cribbage* WHFKQLTXHLVQRW common and no historical data exists showing its use. Hughes (2000a) mentions its common use between Nuristan and %DOWLVWDQWKLVV\VWHPZDVDOUHDG\XVHGLQMohenjodaro (app. 3,500 BCE), in 5RPDQDQG0HGLHYDO/RQGRQIRUTXD\FRQVWUXFWLRQDQGDWWKHBaltit Fort already app. 800 years ago (ibid.).

The combination of the *cribbage* construction with the *cator* construction changes the static role of the wood. In the simple *cator*V\VWHP±DVGHVFULEHGDIRUHIRU/DGDNK±WKHZRRGHQFRPSRnents are integrated into the solid wall construction, which may be of stones or adobe bricks. In this case, the solid wall component (stone or brick) is the prime carrier of the load and we can still talk of a solid wall construction. In contrast, the *cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHDVGHVFULEHG for North Pakistan is from a static point of view closer to a wooden skeleton construction. This is emphasised by the fact that parts of this construction, in particular the *cribbage* components, may be erected as 'VLPSOH¶ZRRGHQFRQVWUXFWLRQV¿UVWDQG¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHVLQDODWHUSKDVH

The solid component of this construction is primarily stone. Fired bricks would be too energyintensive and, from a static point of view, would mean no improvement. On the other hand, adobe bricks are not common, possibly due to the unsuitable properties of local clay (see aforementioned material resources). The strength of adobe bricks in general is lower than stone, which may result in cracks due to tensions in the wooden part of the construction. In particular, strength for adobe bricks is low against shear forces and tensile loads.

In a drawing, Hughes (2000a: Fig. 1) shows standards for the *cator and cribbage* construction, where the *cribbage* columns are set at a distance of app. 2 m to 4 m from each other. This refers to the available average length of structural timber. The runner beams (*cator*) are placed with a

<sup>146</sup> Hughes (2007: 102) describes cribbage as a "vertical timber box frame".

Fig. 4.50 System of a *cator and cribbage* construction. CAD: Martin Pospichal. Details provided by the author.

vertical distance of max. app. 1 m from each other. They are connected with each other at the corners by wooden SHJV7LPEHUVDUHLQSUR¿OHFPWRFPVTXDUHTimber length is not always MRLQWHGRUQDLOHGWRJHWKHU7RUHDFKDEHWWHUTXDOLW\UXQQHUEHDPVDUHWLHGWRJHWKHUWKURXJKWKH wall thickness with cross-pieces at 1 m to 4 m intervals.

This WHFKQLTXHHQDEOHVUDWKHUVOLPDQGKLJKZDOOSURSRUWLRQVDVLVVHHQDWWKHIDFDGHRIWKHBaltit Fort, which is just app. 40 cm thick, but 10 m high (Hughes 2007: 112). Historical monuments RIWKHVHUHJLRQVDVVKRZQLQSKRWRJUDSKVE\'DQLDUHPDLQO\EXLOWZLWKWKH*cator and cribbage* system. This concerns forts and palaces (*khar*VPRVTXHV*masjid*s) and tombs of saints ( *astana*VWKHDUWLVWLFVW\OH UHODWHGWRWKLVFRQVWUXFWLRQLVORFDOO\NQRZQDV*thatar*147 (Klimburg 2007: 151). For an additional strengthening of the corners in the *cribbage* system, wooden boards were introduced between two rows of *cator* beams covering the end of the wall (cf. Dani 3ODWH;D7RZHURIDost Mohammad in Tangir Valley). This WHFKQLTXHLVDOVRSUDFWLFHGLQ Himachal Pradesh, e.g. in Chamba and Middle .LQQDXUVHH)LJ

<sup>147</sup> The North Pakistan term *thatar* is used in Chamba (as *thathar*) to describe the single horizontal pieces used in the *farque* construction (cf. Handa 2008b: 101).

### 248 Chapter IV

### 4.3 Kashmir

This chapter concerns composite wall constructions containing wood in Kashmir. In 2006 and WKH DXWKRU FRQGXFWHG ¿HOG UHVHDFK LQ Srinagar and surrounding areas. The altitude of Srinagar is about 1,585 m, which is roughly 2,000 m below settled areas in Ladakh, 1,000 m below settled areas in Chamba and Baltit, and 500 m below Kalam.

At 13.6°C, the average annual temperature in Srinagar is, besides Chamba Town, the highest within the reached North Indian settlements. It is about 8°C higher compared to Leh and similar to Kinnaur and Chamba. At 23.1°C, the maximum temperature is, besides Chamba Town, WKHKLJKHVWZLWKLQWKHUHVHDUFKHG1RUWK,QGLDQVHWWOHPHQWVZKLOHWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQDQQXDO maximum and minimum temperature is 23.1°C, which is the highest after the Ladakh region. This KLJKGL൵HUHQFHPHDQVDSDUWLFXODUKLJKVWUHVVRIWKHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDORYHUWKHVHDVRQVRID\HDU UHVXOWLQJLQWKHQHHGRIÀH[LEOHEHKDYLRXU7KHFOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVLQWKHKashmir Valley may explain the relatively high population of timber. This fact implicates a higher amount of wood used in building constructions compared to higher altitudes and regions with less tree population. Such FRQGLWLRQVVXSSRUWWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVRPHSDUWLFXODUEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV/RZWHPSHUDWXUHV around 0°C in winter may bring big amounts of snow.

A pitched roof is the traditional roof construction in Srinagar and the hilly surrounding region. At a few historical building sites in the 6ULQDJDUUHJLRQZH¿QGDPL[WXUHRIVORSLQJDQGJUHHQURRIV The *khanqah* in 3DPSXUDOWPDSSNPVRXWKHDVWRISrinagar) or the Madeen Saheb (15th century CE, INTACH 2010b: 480) located near Nowshohar are good examples, and from a FRQVWUXFWLYHSRLQWRIYLHZUHODWHGWRZKDWZH¿QGDWWKHSumtseg in Alchi located in Ladakh at an altitude of 3,020 m. This is one of the few examples in /DGDNKLQÀXHQFHGE\Kashmir in regard to art history and building structure. In a picture by Kak, the *khanqah* in Pampur is shown with a sloping grass URRI.DN3ODWH;/9,,QWKHPHDQWLPHLWKDVEHHQFKDQJHGWRDWLQroof.

The sophisticated URRIWLPEHULQJVKRZVDFRQVWUXFWLRQW\SLFDOIRUPDQ\RIWKHPRVTXHVLQKashmir and North Pakistan. The part of the roof next to the eave is made with a gentle slope in a single- or multi-tiered pyramidal shape (Kash. *chaar baam*). The central part of the roof is a steep sloping spire. A small open pavillon (Kash. *brangh*) is often integrated between the spire and the *chaar baam* (Fig. 4.51). Similar types of roofs with a central steep sloping portion on top of an open roof pavillion and covered with wooden shingles are also found at Buddhist structures, e.g. in Middle .LQQDXUVSHFL¿FDOO\LQRopa, Sunnam or Karla.

In Srinagar, a particular composite building culture developed with buildings of a common height of up to three and four storeys. 6ULQDJDUDSSHDUVDVDNLQGRIWUDQVLWLRQ]RQHRIGL൵HUHQWEXLOGLQJ WHFKQLTXHVZLWKOLJKWZHLJKWDVZHOODVVROLGVWUXFWXUHVDQGWKRVHUHVXOWLQJIURPDFRPELQDWLRQ As a light-weight construction, the *dhajji-dewari*LVSUHGRPLQDQWDV VROLG VWUXFWXUHVWKH*taq* is predominant and the *cator and cribbage* FRQVWUXFWLRQ IUHTXHQWO\ XVHG\$OOWKHVH FRQVWUXFWLRQV are closely related to the availability of structural timber. The *dhajji-dewari* is widely used over Kashmir (in India and Pakistan as well), while further north in North Pakistan and in Himachal 3UDGHVKZH¿QGLWRFFDVLRQDOO\,QChamba, which is close to Kashmir, the *dhajji-dewari* is still more prevalent than in the districts of Shimla or Kinnaur. *Cator and cribbage* constructions are

Fig. 4.51 View over the city of Srinagar. In the centre of the picture, four pyramidal-shaped roofs (*chaar baam*) are visible.

widely used in Kashmir, North Pakistan and Himachal Pradesh. *Bhatar* constructions are widely known in the Himalayas. Historical monuments are mainly from the last two centuries, in particular *taq* constructions, although some historical monuments can also be mentioned for the 13th/14th century. In particular, some historical *cator and cribbage* constructions reach back to this period.

### 4.3.1 *Taq*

It is a 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUODFLQJsimilar to the *bhatar* in Pakistan or the *hatil* in Turkey (Fig. 4.52). 7KHµODGGHUV¶DUHSULPDULO\ODLGRQÀRRUOHYHODQGFRQQHFWHGWRWKHÀRRUEHDPVWRVWUHQJWKHQWKH ZDOODJDLQVWODWHUDOIRUFHVFI/DQJHQEDFK7RJHWKHU*taq* and ÀRRUEHDPVIRUPDKRUL]RQWDO rigid membrane (Fig. 4.53). Floor beams are in most cases visible from the outside. '/DGGHU¶ like timber lacings (in Kashmir known as *ker* /DQJHQEDFK LQ +LPDFKDO 3UHGHVK DV *cheol*) act as ring beams and are joined at the corners. The lacing is not vertically connected. The UXQQHUEHDPVDUHDSSFPWRFPVTXDUHLELG7KH*taq* may also be introduced in the wall between the ÀRRUVIRUDGGLWLRQDOVWUHQJWKHQLQJDVLWLVFRPPRQZLWK*bhatar* constructions). 7KHUXQQHUEHDPVDUHVWDELOLVHGE\WKHORDGRQWRSDWHFKQLTXHDVDOUHDG\GHVFULEHGE\Julius &DHVDUIRUWKH\*DOOLFZDOOVVHHSDUWRIWKLV&KDSWHU%HVLGHVWKHWLPEHU¶VXVHas a reinforcing component, the *taq* also describes a modularity alternating between masonry piers (*tshun*, 45 cm to 60 cm) and window bays (*taqshe*FPWRFPLELG7KHDPRXQWRIED\VLVXVHGWR GHVFULEHD EXLOGLQJ¶V VL]H LELG)RUZRUG7KH UK\WKPLFDOFKDQJH EHWZHHQPDVRQU\ SLHUVDQG window bays is also known from Turkish buildings, for example, from 6DIUDQEROXFI¿JXUHLQ Caimi 2006: 465). In Srinagar, some of the buildings are vertically divided into a solid masonry part with timber lacing in the lower part of the building and a *dhajji-dewari* construction on top. The FURVVSLHFHVZLWKLQWKHµODGGHUV¶DUHSUHIHUDEO\EHORZWKHUXQQHUEHDPVDQGLQHDUOLHUGD\V

Fig. 4.52 Kashmir. India. *Taq* constructions along the banks of the Jhelum River.

notches instead of nails were preferred.148 An early example for the use of a *taq* construction in 6ULQDJDULVWKH6\HG6KDK1LDPDWXOODK4DGUL¶V6KULQHth/14th century CE, INTACH 2010a: 55, 306), though the majority of historical monuments using *taq*DUHQRWROGHUWKDQWKHth century, as described by Langenbach (2015: 84).

In Srinagar, ¿UHGEULFNVDUHFRPPRQO\XVHGIRUZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQV\$VSHFLDOVL]HIRU¿UHGbricks was used in .DVKPLULQWKHth and 20th century, and relates to the Maharaja of Dogra (Langenbach 7KHVHbricks are known as *maharaji* bricks (Kash. *maharaji seer*) and had already been XVHGDWHDUOLHUVWUXFWXUHVVXFKDVWKH6\HG6KDK1LDPDWXOODK4DGUL¶V6KULQHth/14th century CE, INTACH 2010a: 306) or the Aastan-i-Syed Mohammad Hussain Baladur (14th century CE, ibid. 188). They were placed as a protecting cover in front of adobe bricks (*khaam seer*) (ibid. 8). They are also known as Lachania bricks with a size of 23 x 10 x 2.5 cm (Interview with Saleem Beg in 2011). Lachan, which is located south of Srinagar, is where the clay for the bricks was collected and where the EULFNVZHUH¿UHG7KHLUORZKHLJKWPHDQVYDULRXVDGYDQWDJHVVXFKDVDKLJKHUbrick VWDELOLW\DQGDELJJHUDPRXQWRIÀH[LEOHMRLQWVEHWZHHQWKHbricks. The bricks were modelled by KDQGDQG¿UHGDWDUDWKHUKLJKKHDW6HPLQDUKHOGE\/DQJHQEDFKLQ,QWKHFLW\PXVHXPRI Safranbolu in January 2012, two traditionally used EULFNVZHUHH[KLELWHG±RQHDVDQadobe brick ZLWKDVL]HRIDSS[[FPDQGRQHDVD¿UHGbrick of app. 20 x 10 x 5 cm. The size of the ¿UHGbrick shows close similarity to the *maharaji seer*. For solid walls, besides bricks also stones are used, in particular in the countryside, as seen at local houses in Naranag, north of Srinagar.

<sup>148</sup> ,QIRUPDWLRQJLYHQDWDVHPLQDUKHOGE\5DQGROSK/DQJHQEDFKWRLQ%UHVFLD,WDO\VHHXQGHU "Correspondence and Interviews").

Fig. 4.53 System of a *taq* construction. a = *taqshe*, b = *tshun*ERWKEDVHGRQSURSRUWLRQVJLYHQLQ/DQJHQEDFK CAD: Martin Pospichal.

Lachan has not yet been clearly localised and will be part of future research.

Fig. 4.54 System of a *dhajji-dewari*FRQVWUXFWLRQ&RPSDUHDVWUXFWXUDOPRGHOJLYHQLQ/DQJHQEDFK CAD: Martin Pospichal.

### 4.3.2 *Dhajji-dewari*

The term *dhajji-dewari* GHULYLQJ IURPWKH 3HUVLDQPHDQLQJ ³SDWFKZRUN TXLOWZDOO´ 6FKDFKHU 4XDLVDULLLLVDKDOIWLPEHUIUDPHconstruction, which may either rise over the whole height of a building or be placed on top of solid walls (Fig. 4.54). Kashmir (in India and Pakistan as well) is one of the main regions of dissemination of this WHFKQLTXH&RPPRQO\XVHGWLPEHUVDUHblue pine, deodar and *FKƯU* pine (Arup 2011: 10). The timber frame consists of vertical and horizontal PHPEHUV:LWKLQWKHIDFDGH±H[FHSWDWLWVFRUQHUV±WKHYHUWLFDOPHPEHUVGRQRWQHFHVVDULO\KDYH to be placed above each other. The frames are divided for later wall openings and are commonly ¿OOHGZLWKDGREHRU¿UHGbricks having a wall thickness of app. 12 cm to 14 cm, which remains unplastered (Seminar held by Langenbach in 2008). The frames may be subdivided by several horizontal wooden members over one storey. In many cases, but not in general, diagonal members DUHLQWURGXFHG,QYLOODJHVWKHXVHRIZRRGHQERDUGVLQVWHDGRIVTXDUHWLPEHUelements is common DQGWKHIUDPHVDUHGLYLGHGLQWRVPDOOHUIUDPHVZLWKVWRQHLQ¿OO\$OVRDPRQJ7XUNLVKhalf-timber frame structures (*KLPLú*ZH¿QGPDQ\H[DPSOHVZLWKRXWGLDJRQDOEUDFLQJ

*Dhajji-dewari* walls are independent structures for each ÀRRU 7KH ÀRRU EHDPV DUH FODPSHG (pressed together) between the upper runner beam of the lower part of the wall (i.e. the storey below) and the lower runner beam of the upper part of the wall (i.e. the storey on top). Further, WKHSDUWVRIWKHZDOODUHFRQQHFWHGWRHDFKRWKHULQDµFDJH¶OLNHPDQQHU)ORRUEHDPVUHPDLQLQ general visible along the front and rear facade. In the case of structural movements, the single storeys of *dhajji-dewari* move partially independently from each other. The high amount of joints LQFUHDVHVDVWUXFWXUH¶VÀH[LELOLW\

### 4.3.3 *Cator and cribbage*

In Kashmir, several *cator and cribbage* constructions follow the type as described for North Pakistan. The *khanqah* in Pampur is one of the impressive examples in Kashmir (Figs. 4.55, 4.56). It was built with deodar wood. The wood construction remained widely open, and only at some SDUWVLWZDV¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHV%LJSDUWVRIWKHORDGEHDULQJZDOOVRIWKLV*khanqah* are built without VWRQHLQ¿OODQGVKRZWKHVWDWLFDOLQGHSHQGHQFHRIWKHWLPEHUstructure in this construction. Several examples show the early development of this WHFKQLTXHLQSrinagar. Among them are the 14th century examples like the Aastan-i-Syed Mohammad Hussain Baladur, the .DQTDKL0XDOODK (INTACH 2010a: 366) or the 5DWTDLO0RVTXH,17\$&+E

Another representative example in Srinagar is the .KDQTDKL1DTVKEDQGLEXLOWDSSLQWKHth FHQWXU\,17\$&+D)LJ7KHZDOOWKLFNQHVVLVDSSFP7KHUXQQHUEHDPV made of deodar are app. 12 x 16 cm (W/H), and the bricks used in the exterior wall are of a size 17 x 13 x 3 cm (L/W/H) following in height a *maharaji* brick size. The width between the *cator* ranges between 50 cm and 160 cm, with the latter larger width used for window openings. The LQWHUVSDFHVDORQJWKHIDFDGHEHWZHHQWKHZRRGHQFRPSRQHQWVDUH¿OOHGZLWKVPDOOVL]HGbricks (Fig. 4.58). The construction at the corners shows that the position of the runner beams is around WKHZKROHEXLOGLQJNHSWDWWKHVDPHOHYHO )LJDQGQRWGLVSODFHGZLWKWKHKHLJKWRIRQH beam at each corner, as known from North Pakistan *dhajji-dewari* buildings.

### 4.4 Eastern Lahaul, Spiti, Upper Kinnaur and northern region of Middle Kinnaur

This chapter concerns composite wall constructions in Himachal Pradesh in the east part of the province Lahaul (village of Keylong, alt. 3,100 m) and Spiti (village of Kaza, alt. 3,660 m and Tabo, alt. 3,285 m), in Upper Kinnaur (villages of Nako, alt. 3,630 m and Chulling, alt. 3,200 m) and in Ropa Division as a northern region of Middle Kinnaur (village Ropa, alt. 3,030 m). Altitude ranges between 3,030 m and 3,660 m and separates this region of study from the following lower altitude region of Middle Kinnaur.



)LJ%RWWRP Srinagar. .KDQTDKL1DTVKEDQGL &RUQHU FRQVWUXFWLRQ 5XQQHUEHDPVDDQGOD\HUVRIEULFNLQ¿OOEDUHOD\HUZLVHDOWHUQDWLQJO\NHSW on the same level around the whole building.

### 4.4.1 *Eastern Lahaul*

Regarding climate data of Keylong in Lahaul, Kaza in Spiti and Nako in Upper .LQQDXUZH¿QG close similarities between Spiti and Upper Kinnaur. At app. 5.2°C, the annual temperature is similar to Leh, whereas the annual precipitation in Spiti and Upper Kinnaur is much higher compared to Leh and similar to Kalam in the 6ZDW9DOOH\\$WDSS&WKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQPLQLPXP and maximum temperatures during one year is much lower than in Leh with 26°C or Gilgit-Baltistan with between 27°C (Baltit) and 30.6°C (Khaplu), and similar to Kalam with 22.6°C. Keylong (alt. 3,100 m) and its surrounding, like Gondhla (alt. 3,170 m), show a slightly higher average annual temperature and precipitation compared to Spiti and Upper Kinnaur. Snowfall during winter can be strong, in particular in the southern regions of Lahaul.

From Ladakh (Leh, alt. 3,520 m) towards Lahaul (Keylong, alt. 3,100 m) as well as from =DQJVNDU (Padum, alt. 3,570 m) towards the Chenab Valley in the south, we observe a move from predominant earth constructions towards stone and earth constructions as well as a higher content of wooden components. Forestration is higher than in Ladakh, in particular in the foothills of this area of study between Lahaul and Middle Kinnaur. In the west in the areas of western Lahaul and towards Kullu and in the east towards Middle Kinnaur, the availability of timber increases. These areas seem to be a transition zone towards stone constructions with an increased content of ZRRGHQFRPSRQHQWV7KHWUDQVLWLRQEHWZHHQVXFK]RQHVLVJUDGXDODQGQRWSUHFLVHO\GH¿QHG,Q JHQHUDOZH¿QGUHJLRQDOO\GHWHUPLQHGW\SHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQZLWKORFDOYDULDWLRQV7KHVWRQHZDOOV in general are plastered at the inside and in several cases also outside.

The traditional roof construction around Keylong, Spiti and Upper Kinnaur is a ÀDWroof covered with clay, often placed on a layer of birch bark. Exceptions exist, for example, the fortress tower of Gondhla, which is today covered with a slightly inclined roof of stone slates, or the temple of Guru Ganthal, which had a sloping wooden URRILQHDUOLHUGD\VVLPLODUWRZKDWZH¿QGDWZRRGHQ temples in Chamba District or at the Hadimba Temple in Manali in .XOOXVHH.KRVOD

4.4.1.a Investigated objects in Eastern Lahaul

#### *Gondhla, Fortress tower*

\$OW P ¶´1 ¶´( /RFDWHG DERXW NP VRXWK RI Keylong in Gondhla in the Chandra Valley, it is an eight-storey high fortress tower formerly belonging to the Thakurs (Fig. 4.60). It was founded in app. 1700 CE (cf. Handa 2008a) as a royal residence DQGZDWFKWRZHUZLWKDVKULQHXSVWDLUV%HUQLHU

,WLVDFRQVWUXFWLRQPDGHZLWKUDWKHUÀDWVWRQHVLQEHWZHHQDµODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQZLWKRXW the use of vertical wooden elements. This construction is known as *dhol-maide*. Parts of the facade between the *cheol* (which is a local term for the runner beams) still bear plaster. The brown wooden lacings and the bright appearing plaster show a relatively conspicuous linear SDWWHUQ7KHÀDWVWRQHVDUHDQDGGLWLRQDOIDFWRULQVWDELOLVLQJWKHZDOO7KHVWRQHVDUHVHWLQD clay PRUWDULELG

In Himachal Pradesh, most fortress towers are placed on a high plinth reinforced with a *dholmaide* construction (e.g. the fortress tower in Labrang, see below), and the walls in the upper

Fig. 4.60 Gondhla. Lahaul. Fortress tower.

part typically continue as *kath-kuni* constructions (in Kinnaur also known as *GRUL\Ɨ*150, Handa 2008b: 145).151 The fortress tower in Gondhla diverges from this typology, since its plinth is rather low and the whole construction follows the *dhol-maide* type. Handa (2001: 184) describes roughly between one and one-and-a half metres of wall thickness for fortress towers. 7RZHUVLQJHQHUDOPD\ UDLVHXSWRPHWUHVDVVKRZQZLWKWKH¿YHVWRUH\VKLJKWRZHUDW &KDLQL¶´1¶´(Fth/18th century CE (Handa 2001: 188).

In the case of Chaini, the high plinth is made as a *dhol-maide* construction with a height of 15 m (Handa 2008b: 75). The fortress tower in Gondhla, in contrast, does not follow this pattern, since it rises over its full height with a *dhol-maide* construction.

### Johling Temple

Johling is a small village located on the left banks of the Bhaga River before reaching Keylong. At this temple, which dates back to the early West Tibetan period (11th century, Luczanits WKHZDOOVDUHUXEEOHVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQV+HUHLWLVSRVVLEOHWR¿QGDIHZZRRGHQ ODFLQJVLQSDUWLFXODU¿[LQJRQHFRUQHUEXWDring beam was not used. Some of the beams show slits, which points towards their former use within another construction or at another position within this temple. Two runner beams are connected at the corner by a half lap joint.152

152 Presented by the author at a lecture at the Vienna University of Technology in January 2011 on "Constructive

<sup>150</sup> \$FFRUGLQJWR'DYHHWDOGL൵HUHQWRWKHUORFDOWHUPVIRUWKH*kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHDUHNQRZQ*katth ki kanni* in Sarahan region or *kashth kona* at other places.

<sup>151</sup> At the *kath-kuni* construction, as described for the Koti Banal architecture in Uttarakhand, the timber structure was EXLOW¿UVWDQGWKHUHDIWHU¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHV5DXWHOD-RVKL

Fig. 4.61 Taryul. Lahaul. Village houses built with stone.

### Gumrang Temple

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. Gumrang is a small village located on the right banks of the Bhaga River before reaching .H\ORQJ\$WOHDVWWKHORZHUSRUWLRQRIWKLVWHPSOH¶V ZDOOVZDVPDGHRIVWRQHV7KHXSSHUSRUWLRQZDVGL൶FXOWWRLQYHVWLJDWHGXHWRLWVLUUHJXODUO\ thick plaster and changes due to a possible former repair. The wall thickness of the stone wall is app. 38 cm and was covered by a concrete wall of a similar thickness. No wooden lacing FRXOGEHIRXQG\$URXQGDQDYDODQFKHGHVWUR\HGWKHHDUO\WHPSOHRIGumrang (Luczanits DQGDQHZWHPSOHZDVHUHFWHG7KLVWHPSOHVKRZVWKHHUHFWLRQRIDODWHUFRQFUHWH wall around the original wall.153

### Taryul, village houses

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Taryul is a small village on the right banks of the Bhaga River above the village of Satingri on the way to Keylong. In this village the walls are traditionally made of stone with wooden 'ODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUODFLQJ*.* The thickness of these walls ranges around 45 cm. Recent structures in this village were erected with stone walls without timber lacing, which compared to early structures shows a change towards reducing timber (Fig. 4..KRVODVWDWHVWKDWFOD\mortar was not used for the traditional timber-bonded walls since the shear compression held the stones in place. However, for new stone walls, clay mortar is used for levelling instead of timbers. In this village some of the up-SHUZDOOV±PRVWSUREDEO\IRUHFRQRPLFUHDVRQVDQGWRUHGXFHWKHORDGRQWRWKHZDOOVEHORZ ±wattle and daub walls were erected. Wattle constructions are primarily made of willow twigs and plastered at the outside and inside.

Traditions in the Western Himalayas". Analysis of the walls of this temple is based on pictures from the Western Himalaya Archive Vienna. Online: https://whav.aussereurop.univie.ac.at/ic/4610/#page=1), access: 06/2016.

<sup>153</sup> In order to strengthen the original stone structure, a second wall was partially erected in front of the original wall and strengthened with columns of steel concrete.

### 4.4.2 Spiti

The altitude increases from Lahaul towards the south-east in Spiti. Here, e.g. at the villages Losar and Hansa (alt. 4,000 m) and Kaza (alt. 3,660 m), one enters a traditionally predominated rammed earth region, which also includes adobe EULFNVWUXFWXUHV\$VGHVFULEHGE\.KRVODD PHWKRGRIPDNLQJZLQGRZDQGGRRUKROHVLV¿UVWWRUDPWKHZDOOVZLWKRXWRSHQLQJVEXWZLWKWKH GRRUDQGZLQGRZIUDPHVDOUHDG\SODFHGLQWKHFRUUHFWSRVLWLRQ\$IWHUWKHUDPPLQJLV¿QLVKHG the openings are gouged out. At several structures, such as the ruins of the Hikkim Monastery, rammed earth walls and adobe walls were erected beside each other, both on stone plinths.

For UDPPHGHDUWKFRQVWUXFWLRQVVDZZRRGWRSURGXFHERDUGVIRUWKHVFD൵ROGLQJLVQHHGHG7KLV QHHGLVVSHFL¿FLQDULG]RQHVZKHUHWLPEHULQgeneral is scarce. In this case, wattled mats made of EUDQFKHV±VLPLODUWRZKDWLVXVHGIRUZDWWOHDQGGDXEFRQVWUXFWLRQV±ZHUHXVHGDVVKXWWHULQJLQ HDUOLHUGD\VFI.KRVOD)LJ7KHURGVWRSURGXFHVXFKPDWVPXVWEHÀH[LEOHDQGDUH made primarily from the twigs of the willow tree. The walls of some of the rammed earth buildings follow the method of tapering the outer surface of the wall by reducing its thickness from a thicker base towards a thinner top and reducing the load of the wall towards its top. For the erection of a tapering UDPPHGHDUWKZDOOWRZDUGVWKHZDOO¶VWRSWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHVFD൵ROGLQJ boards is reduced layer by layer. The height determined of the shuttering boards in Dhankar and Sangnam was on average 60 cm.

Besides a predominance of rammed earth constructions as a local tradition, as is the case in the Spiti Valley or the Pin Valley, adobe brick buildings are also present. In this regard we state a relative predominance that may continuously change or has been changed, and we are certainly not talking of an exclusive and pure rammed earth region.

### *4.4.2.a Investigated objects*

Even today, the method of ramming walls is common, as can be observed in Dhankar or Tabo village. Common wall thickness, as observed in Tabo, Dhankar and Sangnam ranges between 35 cm and 45 cm. Besides residential buildings, religious structures were also rammed. Only the very early temples of the West Tibetan empire were exclusively made of adobe bricks. Two structures are given as examples for a later development of an extensive rammed earth building culture: the village temple in 5DQJULNDSSUGDWDDOWP¶´1¶´(DQGDUXLQHG monastery in +LNNLPDSSUGDWDDOWP¶´1¶´(

### *Rangrik Temple*

In Rangrik Village the Old Temple was built as a rammed earth construction. It follows the design concept of a centralised Buddhist temple with an internal circumambulation corridor (Figs. 4.62, 4.63). The rammed earth walls are plastered. As shown with an old village house, the same raw material was used for the rammed earth and for the plaster (see before). The thickness of the rammed earth walls is app. 50 cm.

### *Hikkim Monastery*

At the Hikkim Monastery, of which only remains of walls exist, rammed earth walls were erected along with adobe EULFNZDOOVDWWKH¿UVWÀRRUOHYHO:DOOVZHUHSODVWHUHG6LPLODUWR +LPDOD\DQFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOLQÀXHQFHV 259

Fig. 4.62 Rangrik. Spiti. Ground plan.

Fig. 4.63 Rangrik. Spiti. Temple walls made of rammed earth.

the results of the material analysis for the old house in 5DQJULN±DVVKRZQZLWKDQROGKRXVH in the surrounding of Hikkim for ramming, brick making and plastering the same raw material was used. Wall thickness of rammed earth walls ranges between app. 40 cm and 50 cm.

### *Tabo Monastery*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. )RXQGHGLQ\$'WKHPRQDVWHU\RITabo is the oldest known religious architectural structure in Spiti. It was built with adobe bricks. Its walls (thickness at the main temple app. 120 cm) were kept unplastered for nearly 1000 years until UHQRYDWLRQZRUNLQWKHV154 Still, many of the wall paintings on the interior wall surfaces DUHZHOOSUHVHUYHG3KRWRJUDSKVRIWKHXQSODVWHUHGZDOOVSXEOLVKHGE\.KRVOD VKRZ no wooden inlays. On the other hand, according to reports (cf. Luczanits 2004: 263), wooden planks of a thickness of 8 cm to 10 cm were inserted into the adobe brick walls with a vertical distance of app. 1.5 cm to 2 m.155 The description points towards the existence of timber lacing within the adobe wall structure, and draws a picture of a far uncommon construction in Spiti.

4.4.3 Upper Kinnaur (Hangrang Division) and Middle Kinnaur (Ropa Division)

In Kinnaur in pre-collonial times, under the earlier ancient kingdom of Bashahr, near total con-WURORIWKHIRUHVWVEHORQJHGWRWKHYLOODJHV%HO]FI%DMSDLFI&UDQQH\ Concerning building material features, Upper Kinnaur is more related to the Spiti and Lahaul region than to the southern regions of Kinnaur. This district is divided into Upper, Middle and

<sup>154</sup> A paper titled "7DER7VXJODJNKDQJ±YDULRXVDVSHFWVRILQWHJUDWLYHFRQVHUYDWLRQ´ZDVSUHVHQWHGE\WKHDXWKRUDW an international seminar in January 2014 in Krakow.

<sup>155</sup> Since the inner surface of the walls is plastered and mostly painted, the use of timber lacing could only be reconstructed with the help of conservation reports.

Lower Kinnaur, which are again subdivided into the following regional divisions:156


Upper Kinnaur and Ropa, which is the northern division of Middle Kinnaur, are located to the east and south of Spiti. In this northern part of Kinnaur (located at an altitude of 3,000 m and above), the tradition of building with stones is present, similar to Lahaul, but with an even less content of timber. Due to these features, Upper Kinnaur and the northern region of Middle Kinnaur are close WRHDFKRWKHUDQGGL൵HUIURPFRQVWUXFWLRQVIXUWKHUVRXWK7KLVPD\EHH[SODLQHGE\FKDQJHVLQJHological characteristics and timber resources. Since river stones were also used for construction, a general tendency towards the use of stones is indicated. The region of Upper Kinnaur shows less precipitation and much lower temperatures, as is the case in lower areas of Middle Kinnaur.

From Upper Kinnaur southwards (towards Middle and Lower Kinnaur) and to the west and south of Lahaul, a change towards an increased use of stone becomes evident. In contrast, Spiti shows an exception with a preference for earth constructions. On the other hand, the amount of wood XVHGIRUEXLOGLQJVLQFUHDVHVLQWKHVHGLUHFWLRQVDQGLVXVHGLQGL൵HUHQWFRPSRVLWHZD\VSULPDU-LO\WRJHWKHUZLWKVWRQH,QWUDQVLWLRQDO]RQHVEHLQJKRPHRIHVWDEOLVKPHQWVRIGL൵HUHQWEXLOGLQJ WHFKQLTXHVOLNHLQHangrang in Upper Kinnaur, in Ropa in the northern part of Middle Kinnaur, or in /DKDXOZH¿QGSXUHVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQVDVDWUDGLWLRQDOZD\RIEXLOGLQJ7KHUHLVDFKDQJH from Upper Kinnaur to Middle Kinnaur from solid structures of stone and clay towards the use of *dhol-maide* constructions (cf. Handa 2001: 108f.), which resembles the *bhatar* construction in North Pakistan.

A main feature of this construction is the still high amount of stones used in relation to the whole construction as well as the WHFKQLTXHRIVWRQHOD\LQJDQGWKHDEVHQFHRIYHUWLFDOZRRGHQVWUXFWXUDO wall components. 6WRQHLVVWLOOQRWMXVWDQLQ¿OOEXWWKHSULPDU\ORDGEHDULQJPDWHULDODOWKRXJK the timber components take over important static features of the construction.

### *4.4.3.a Investigated objects*

### *Nako, village buildings*

The village houses of 1DNRDUHLQPRVWFDVHVHLWKHUSXUHVWRQHFRQVWUXFWLRQVRITXDUULHGVWRQH or the ground ÀRRULVVWRQHDQGWKHXSSHUÀRRUFRQVWUXFWHGRIDGREHbricks. The use of wooden bracings is uncommon.

### *Nako, temple compound*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(&RQWUDU\WRWKHVWRQHEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQRIWKH village houses, the four temples of the temple compound are all built with adobe bricks. The two earliest temples of this compound are the /RWVƗED7HPSOHZKLFKLVGDWHGWRWKH¿UVWGHFades of the 12th century, and the Upper Temple, which at the earliest is dated to the middle of the 12th century (Luczanits 2004: 84, 88). The thickness of the walls of these two temples is DSSFP\$WVRPHSDUWVRIWKHIDFDGHRIWKHVHWZRWHPSOHVµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFLQJVbut no

Fig. 4.64 Nako. Wooden bracket. Fig. 4.65 Chulling. Temple. Ground plan.

'ODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQFRXOGEHWUDFHG\$WWKHQRUWKHUQFRUQHURIWKHUpper Temple (front left corner with view towards the temple), a wooden bracket was used to keep the lacing in SRVLWLRQ)LJ7KHUDQGRPVWRQHVWUXFWXUHVZLWKWKHXVHRIDµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFLQJresemble stone constructions, for example, in Lahaul as found at the Johling Temple. In general, this approach seems to be related primarily to a stone building tradition. The use of clay as a building material within a region, which is today shaped by a stone building culture, may either refer to a change of a building tradition in the past or to the establishment of a doctrinal ideology, by which the use of adobe bricks may have been favoured for early West Tibetan structures (see 4.4.3.b below).

#### *Chulling Temple*

Alt. 3,200 m. The village-temple in Chulling in Hangrang is made as a random stone structure similar to the temples in Johling with no wooden lacing found (Fig. 4.65). At the example of Chulling in Upper Kinnaur, the stones used have a rounded shape, probably from the river nearby, while at the -RKOLQJH[DPSOHTXDUU\VWRQHVZHUHXVHG\$WERWKFRQVWUXFWLRQVQRmortar was found between the stones.157 The WHFKQLTXHRIXVLQJURXQGVKDSHGVWRQHVFRUUHODWHVZLWK the simplicity of the geometry of the ground plan.

<sup>156</sup> The partition of Kinnaur into three internal regions, Upper, Middle and Lower Kinnaur, follows the systematisa-WLRQJLYHQE\6DQDQDQG6ZDGL±

<sup>157</sup> Presented by the author at a lecture at the Vienna University of Technology in January 2011 on "Constructive Traditions in the Western Himalayas".

### *Ropa, /RWVƗED7HPSOH*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. In the case of the /RWVƗED7HPSOHLQRopa (Figs. th or 11thFHQWXU\&(/XF]DQLWVWKHµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFLQJas found in the temples of Nako changes into a 'ODGGHU¶OLNHFRQVWUXFWLRQNQRZQDV*"dhol-maide"*158. App. 15 km further west from Chulling and about 140 m below the /RWVƗED7HPSOHRIRopa, a change in construction occurs, similar to what was observed for the change from Lahaul towards western and southern located lower areas. The mentioned construction in Ropa, which is still primarily a solid structure with wooden lacing, already shows a clear tendency towards the increasing use of timber and a related increasing share of wooden components in the con-VWUXFWLRQ:RRGHQFRPSRQHQWVH[LVWQRWRQO\DVUHGXFHGWRµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFLQJas we know from the temples of Nako, but as successively approaching a distinct structural and load bearing body.

The stone wall of this *dhol-maide* construction with a width of app. 70 cm is built in vertical VHJPHQWVZLWKHDFKVHJPHQWKDYLQJDKHLJKWRIDERXWFPWRFP7RKROGWKHUXQQHU beams in position, wooden cross-pieces are alternately placed below and on top of the runner EHDPVZLWKDKRUL]RQWDOGLVWDQFHRIDERXWPWRP7KLVWHFKQLTXHLQFUHDVHVWKHVWDELOLV-LQJH൶FLHQF\RIWKH*dhol-maide.* The method of joining runner beams and cross-pieces varies locally and even among single objects within the same village.

,QRUGHUWRUHFRQVWUXFWWKHSURFHVVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQWKH¿UVWOD\HURIcross-pieces is laid across WKHZDOOZLWKDFHUWDLQSURWUXVLRQWKDWLVWREHODWHUXVHGWR¿[WKHEHDPVZLWKDODSMRLQWWR the runner beams. The space between the FURVVSLHFHVLV¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHV\$IWHUEULQJLQJ WKHUXQQHUEHDPVLQWRSRVLWLRQRQWRSRIWKH¿UVWOD\HURIcross-pieces, the space between the UXQQHUEHDPVLV¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHV7KHUHDIWHUWKHVHFRQGOD\HURIcross-pieces is placed on top of the runner beams, again with a certain protrusion, and joined to them with lap joints. The horizontal position of this second layers of cross-pieces is between the cross-pieces of WKH¿UVWOD\HU

In the case of 5RSDWKHSUR¿OHRIWKHVHcross-pieces is rectangular. As shown at examples in Ladakh (see above), the wooden cross-pieces may also be round, pointing towards a simpler version with less availability of cutting timber. However, in regard to the static system, they show a similar function. The runner beams are always cut and treated carefully regarding size, dimension and straight growth.

,QWKHFDVHWKDWWKHZDOOLVORQJHUWKDQWKHDYHUDJHOHQJWKRIEHDPV±ZKLFKLQWKH+LPDOD\DQ ]RQHLVDERXWIRXUPHWUHV±WKHEHDPVKDYHWREHMRLQHG,QWKHFDVHRIRopa, this joining was conducted by half lap joints. Also at the *cator and cribbage* structures as shown by Hughes (2000a: Fig. 1) or at the *kath-kuni* structures as shown by Rautela and Joshi (2008: 477), maximum length is given with four metres. Special care is given to the corners with larger stones XVHGDORQJWKHZDOO\$WWKHFRUQHUVWKHFURVVLQJµODGGHUV¶DUHVXSSRUWHGE\DSLHFHRIDEHDP of a length slightly more than the width of the wall. This corner piece keeps the top beams in a levelled position.

<sup>158</sup> The system of a *dhol-maide* (= *bhatar*) construction is depicted in Fig. 4.47.

Fig. 4.66 Ropa. /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJ South-east corner. *Dhol-maide* construction. The detail

shows a strengthening of the corners by supporting the *cheol* (1) with wooden beams (2).

Fig. 4.67 Ropa. /RWVƗED /KDNKDQJ Ground plan.

The stone wall of the *dhol-maide* construction traditionally remains unplastered. In the case of the 5RSD7HPSOHHYHQDIWHUDSS\HDUVSUHFLSLWDWLRQLVQRWWRVXFKDQH[WHQWWKDWWKH wooden construction is rotting. Since the outer walls are plastered only inside, the unplastered facade supports air circulation within the walls and drains water inside the walls to the outside. Further, dampness is easily moved from the inside towards the outside due to the open construction caused by a plurality of gaps between the stones.

Compared to solid and plastered walls, at timber frame buildings the amount of building mois-WXUHLVTXLWHPLQLPDODQGWKHGU\LQJWLPHVKRUWFI.Q]HO\$VLPLODULGHDPD\EH behind keeping the outside walls unplastered. Clay mortar as it is used at the Ropa Temple is in general permeable to water vapour. Air circulation by openings and air leakiness of the walls VXSSRUWWKHGU\LQJSURFHVV\$TXLFNO\GU\LQJZDOOLVQHFHVVDU\VRDVWRQRWD൵HFWWKHplaster and the wall paintings on the inner surfaces of the wall.

*4.4.3.b Construction of early West Tibetan monasteries for comparison* Since with early Buddhist temples in Tabo and Nako a close relation to early West Tibetan structures is given, before moving further to southern regions in .LQQDXUWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRI adobe bricks for the earliest West Tibetan monasteries is discussed (see Map 1.2 in Chapter I). This concerns the following monasteries: Nyarma in /DGDNKDOWP¶´1 ¶´(Tabo in 6SLWL DOWP¶´1¶´(Nako in Upper .LQQDXUDOWP¶´1¶´(Tholing in West 7LEHWDOWP ¶´1¶´(DQGKhorchag in Purang in 7LEHWP¶´1 ¶´()URPKinnaur along the Sutlej towards the east into Ngari (West Tibet), we ¿QGWKHHDUO\KLVWRULFDOWest Tibetan centre of Tholing. Here the altitude increases and an arid zone is present. Further, in an easterly direction into 3XUDQJZH¿QGKhorchag (app. 3,730 m), another early West Tibetan centre. The whole area shows a predominance of earth construction. Today, clay is the predominant building material. These monastic centres are located at an altitude between 3,264 m and 3,730 m. In Purang, the annual average precipitation is slightly higher compared to Spiti and Upper Kinnaur, while the annual average temperature is similar. 'XHWRWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKHPRQVRRQSUHFLSLWDWLRQLQWKLVDUHDLVPXFKKLJKHUWKDQLQLeh.

\$WVHYHUDORIWKHVHVLWHVZH¿QGWKHRULJLQDOFRQVWUXFWLRQVRIWKHHDUO\ UHOLJLRXVVWUXFWXUHV HPEHGGHGLQDQHQYLURQPHQWRIGL൵HUHQWWHFKQLFDOGHYHORSPHQWV


bricks are potentially various, such as the availability of the proper clay for adobe bricks, WKHQHHG IRUDGHIHQVLYHVWUXFWXUHDJDLQVWHQHPLHVÀRRGLQJDVDQDWXUDOFDWDVWURSKHRU TXLFN SURFHVVLQJ RIWKH FOD\ZLWKRXW D SUHFHGLQJWLPHFRQVXPLQJ GU\LQJ SURFHVV7KH need for a certain form of representation could also have been a reason for the decision in the choice between rammed earth and adobe bricks. A rammed earth construction has a dominant and fortress-like appearance, in particular with tapering walls.

Â The selection of one of the two building methods (rammed earth or adobe bricks) is re-ODWHGWRWKHDYDLODELOLW\ RID SURSHU TXDOLW\ RIFOD\ In the case of the availability of coarse clay with a content of just a few clay minerals as binders, the material is appropriate for the use of UDPPHGHDUWKFRQVWUXFWLRQV,QWKHRSSRVLWHFDVHZKHUH¿QHUPDWHULDO with a higher content of clay minerals is available, the production of adobe bricks would EHDFRQVHTXHQFH\$OVRWKHFRQWHQWRIcalcite reduces the strength of the clay, which is the case, for example, in the regionally available clay in Spiti (see Table 4.5 in the Appendix of Chapter IV).

It becomes obvious that over the distance of about 500 km, main temples of early monasteries of the West Tibetan kingdom under Lama Yeshe Ö (late 10th century CE), namely Nyarma, Khorchag, Tholing and Tabo, were all built with adobe EULFNV±SDUWLDOO\FRQWUDGLFWLQJHDUOLHU or later regional developments. This seems not to have been a coincidence, but was most probably part of a general concept also concerning layout and construction of the main temples of these compounds. The layout of the temples is related to a geometrical and proportional pattern. For the precise realisation of such concepts, adobe bricks seem to be an appropriate building material. The use of adobe bricks was also appropriate for keeping a certain accurate precision in building right angles, and in keeping the walls straight and of a relatively consistent thickness, i.e. with a thickness reaching up to 130 cm (for example, at Temple II in 1\DUPDFI)HLJOVWRUIHUE

### 4.4.4 Middle Kinnaur (Sairag, Jangram, Upper Tukpa, Sumcho)


From Nako in Upper Kinnaur towards Middle Kinnaur in the south and along the Sutlej towards Shimla District, the altitude decreases continuously (Map 4.8), correlating with an increase in the use of timber. In Nako in Upper Kinnaur compared to Spillo in Middle Kinnaur, the average annual temperature decreases from 12.2°C to 4.8°C in Nako. Also annual precipitation increases, and WKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQPLQLPXPDQGPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUHGHFUHDVHV7KHDPRXQWRIVQRZLV higher than in Upper Kinnaur. Towards 5DPSXUDOWPWKHVHGL൵HUHQFHVREYLRXVO\LQFUHDVH

,PSRUWDQWIDFWRUVIRUHDV\DYDLODELOLW\DUHFULWHULDOLNHOHVVH൵RUWLQGLJJLQJDQGVKRUWZD\VRIWUDQVSRUW

Map 4.8 Sites related to Kinnaur and Spiti.

GIS data based map: Jakob Gredler. Final graphics: author. Map based on data from Vector data (VD) and Basemaps (BM). Citations of VD and BM also see: Chapter IX, list of illustrations.

A traditional roof construction in Middle Kinnaur is a ÀDWroof covered with clay, often on a layer of birch bark (Fig. 4.68). Several residential and also temple structures, e.g. around Rekong Peo or the temples of Kothi, have VODWHURRIV)LJDQGDIHZEXLOGLQJVOLNHWKHFHQWUDOWHPSOH of the monastery in Labrang or a roof over the central *stupa* of a *stupa* ensemble in Karla, are covered with a steep roof with wooden slats (Fig. 4.70). As an example, the sixth ÀRRURIWKHIRUWUHVV tower at Labrang was covered with a pitched wooden roof, before the top ÀRRUZDVUHPRYHGDQG WKH¿IWKÀRRUZDVFRYHUHGZLWKDÀDWroof (Negi Loktus 2015: 318).

The %KƯPƗ.ƗOƯ7HPSOHLQSarahan in Shimla District follows a similar slate covered roof pattern. With a decreasing altitude towards lower regions of Rampur and increasing precipitation, the traditional sloping roofs become more common. Using wood for covering the most holy part of a shrine or temple is said to be an old tradition (Handa 2001: 111). This may be the reason that, for example, in Middle Kinnaur, such wooden roof coverings appear in regions, where slate is commonly used to cover inclining roofs. According to Belz (2012: 164, 167), in Kinnaur slate has EHHQXVHGDVDURR¿QJPDWHULDOVLQFHWKHVDQGHYHQPRUHFRPPRQO\VWDUWLQJLQWKHV after ÀDWURRIVDVWKHDQFLHQWroof type, were partially replaced by pitched wooden slats.

#### *4.4.4.a From dhol-maide to kath-kuni*

Moving further south in Middle Kinnaur along the Sutlej Valley, the amount of timber within stone-timber composite constructions increases and the structural timber elements become statically more relevant as autonomous constructions within the whole composite compound. The timber components are not just reduced to wooden horizontal layers, as we know from a *dhol-maide* construction*,* but increasingly more wooden components are introduced primarily at the corners. For the *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHEHDPVDUHSODFHGZLWKLQDVPDOOHUYHUWLFDOGLVWDQFH (in general the height of one beam) to each other (Fig. 4.71). The wooden framework (known as *cheol*LVHLWKHU¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHRUUXEEOHPDVRQU\*Kath-kuni* refers to all the corners made RIZRRG+DQGD7KLVPHDQLQJSRLQWVWRDFKDQJHIURPWKHµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFing via the *dhol-maide* construction towards the *kath-kuni* construction. Within these gradual YDULDWLRQIURPµVLPSOH¶ODFLQJWRZDUGVWKH*kath-kuni* composite system, stone takes over the position of an LQ¿OOPDWHULDO\$QLPSRUWDQWIDFWRURIVWRQHLQ¿OOLVWKHVWDELOLVDWLRQRIWKHZKROH construction in that the stone keeps the timber components in position. Their mass is a factor for the stabilisation of the elastic timber FRQVWUXFWLRQ(TXDOO\WLJKWSODFLQJRIVWRQHVDQG timber decreases the possibility of later movement of parts of the construction, and keeps the FRQVWUXFWLRQÀH[LEOHLQWKHFDVHRIVWUXFWXUDOPRYHPHQWVFDXVHGIRUH[DPSOHE\HDUWKTXDNHV

7KHUHVXOWLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQHTXDOVWKH*cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHDVDOUHDG\GHVFULEHGIRU North Pakistan. An average length of residential *kath-kuni* structures ranges between 4 m and 8 m (Dave et al. 2013: 75), which is similar to the average length given for runner beams at *cator and cribbage* constructions (cf. Hughes 2000a). The average width of *kath-kuni* walls ranges between 50 cm and 60 cm (Dave et al. 2013: 75). The layer of stone is locally known as *mait* (Handa 2008b: 145). Fixing the runner beams with cross-pieces, which is known as being dove-tailed,160LVDQRSWLRQWRNHHSWKHEHDPVLQSRVLWLRQ7KDNXU+DQGD The horizontal timber components of the *cator* in many cases remain unplastered and give the wall a horizontally striped appearance.

<sup>160</sup> Local term for cross braces or dove tail is *maanvi* (Dave et al. 2013: 73).

Fig. 4.68 (Top) Labrang. Middle Kinnaur. View over the ÀDWURRIV )LJ%RWWRPOHIWKalpa. Middle Kinnaur. Slate covered roof. Fig. 4.70 (Bottom, right) Karla. Middle Kinnaur. Wooden slat covered roof.

Fig. 4.71 System of a *kath-kuni* construction.

CAD: Martin Pospichal. Acc. to: Handa 'HWDLOV SURYLGHG E\ WKH author.

#### *4.4.4.b Farque*

)RUWKHYHUWLFDOµFROXPQ¶OLNHPHPEHUVRIWKH*cribbage,*HLWKHUVTXDUHGWLPEHURUWKLFNplanks DUHSLOHGXSRQHDFKRWKHUZLWKHDFKOD\HUURWDWHGE\)LJ,QChamba, this WHFKQLTXH is known as *farque* (Handa 2001: 108). The single wooden pieces, which are laid as facing pairs at each layer, are known as *thathar* (Handa 2008b: 101). This WHFKQLTXHFDQDOVREHIRXQG in Kinnaur as a subordinate type of construction.

Fig. 4.72 System of a *farque* construction. CAD: Martin Pospichal. Details provided by the author.

### *4.4.4.c Dhajji-dewari*

Another WHFKQLTXHZKLFKLVFRPSDUHGWR*kath-kuni* rarely used in Kinnaur*,* is the so-called *"dhaji-dewari"* (see Fig. 4.54). This WHFKQLTXHLVPDLQO\IRXQGLQKashmir or North Pakistan, though several examples can also be found in Himachal Pradesh, e.g. in Kanam in Kinnaur. In Kinnaur, this WHFKQLTXHSOD\VDVXERUGLQDWHUROH7KHW\SHRI*dhaji-dewari* wall as it is shown in Kanam (see Fig. 4.86) consists of a wooden frame structure (foundation beam, roof beam, VTXDUHVKDSHGSLOODUVGLYLGHGLQWRVPDOOHUIUDPHVE\KRUL]RQWDOERDUGVDQGGLDJRQDOO\SODFHG boards. The amount of wood is high, but the dimension of the single wooden pieces is small*.* 

#### *4.4.4.d Observed objects in Middle Kinnaur*

#### *Karla, village*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. Karla is a small village located north of Spillo. Several examples show the diversity of constructions to be found in this village. Close to the village temple, there is a *stupa* group covered by a roof supported by pillars, which follow a *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXH\$WWKHIURQWWKHVXSSRUWLQJFRQVWUXFWLRQLVPDGHZLWKSLOODUVIROORZLQJ the *farque* WHFKQLTXHEXWZLWKRXWVWRQHLQ¿OO7KLVH[DPSOHVKRZVWKHWLPEHUconstruction as the primary load-bearing component of a *farque* construction (Fig. 4.73). The stone walls of the village temple in Karla follow the *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXH)LJ\$QROGGHFD\HGKRXVH beside the temple shows a similar construction WHFKQLTXHEXWWKHFRQWHQWRIWLPEHULVreduced to a *dhol-maide*FRQVWUXFWLRQ)LJ,QWKHODWWHUH[DPSOHWZRGL൵HUHQWWHFKQLTXHV*kathkuni* and *dhol-maide*) are located beside each other.

#### *Labrang, Fortress tower*

\$OW P ¶´1 ¶´(Labrang is a village close to Spillo located opposite to the village Kanam (Fig. 4.76). Its monastery is located at a higher altitude of app. 3,000 m. The village stretches downwards below the monastery to an altitude of app. 2,830 m. A fortress tower is located in the south-western section of the village. Since Capt. Gerard did not mention this fort after his stay at Kanam and Labrang in 1818, its existence at this early time is doubtful (Negi Loktus 2015: 312). Above the third *cheol* located in the plinth*,* the tower raises with a *kath-kuni* construction (Fig. 4.77). The beams of the *kath-kuni* portion of the tower are of a height of two layers of stone. The wooden structure of each facade is formed by layerwise piling up runner beams and cross-pieces and interlacing the runner beams at the FRUQHUV 6WUXFWXUDOO\WKLV DUUDQJHPHQW IRUPV D FROXPQOLNH UHLQIRUFHPHQW DW HDFK IDFDGHကV corners (1) and centre (2) (see numbers given in Fig. 4.77), the latter dividing each facade into two symmetrical parts. Each of these two symmetrical parts is structurally again divided into two parts by the placement of wooden cross-pieces between the runner beams (see number 3 in Fig. 4.77). Since the cross-pieces are not connected by lap joints it can be assumed that they are ¿[HGZLWKZRRGHQpegs (locally known as *kadil,* Dave et al. 2013: 75) to the facing beams. The EDVHPHQWRIWKLV¿YHVWRUH\WRZHUZKLFKKDGVL[VWRUH\VLQHDUOLHUGD\V1HJL/RNWXV 317), is a *dhol-maide* construction (Fig. 4.78). The heads of the outside facing runner beams of some *cheol* of the *dhol-maide* construction decoratively protrude from the wall (number 1 in Fig. 4.78). *Cheol*PHHWLQJDWRQHFRUQHUDUHYHUWLFDOO\R൵VHWWRHDFKRWKHU)ROORZLQJWKLVR൵VHW cross-pieces are located either below or on top of the runner beam (number 2 in Fig. 4.78). The VWRQHVDUHLQJHQHUDOUDWKHUÀDWDQGFDUHIXOO\GUHVVHG7KHFRUQHUVWRQHVDUHELJJHULQVL]H7KH KHLJKWRIWKHEHDPVHTXDOVWKHKHLJKWRIWZRWRIRXUOD\HUVRIVWRQH

Fig. 4.73 Karla. *Farque* construction.

Fig. 4.74 Karla. In the picture left: *kath-kuni* construction (1).

Fig. 4.75 Karla. In the picture left: *dhol-maide* construction (1). In the picture right (in ruins): *kath-kuni* construction (2).


*Labrang, village and Old Monastery*

Village houses (alt. 2,830 m to 3,020 m) show stone walls of the two types as already described for the .DUOD7HPSOHVHH)LJV±RQHW\SHGH¿QHGE\WKH*kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHDQG the other by the *dhol-maide* WHFKQLTXH The stones are dressed, but not as precisely as shown at the Labrang Fortress tower, underlining a particular status of the given workmanship. One H[DPSOHVKRZVEHDPVHTXDOOLQJWKHKHLJKWRIWZROD\HUVRIVWRQH(QGVRIRSHQZDOOVDUHFRYered with panels (or beams), which are reminiscent of a *farque*FRQVWUXFWLRQ)LJ3DUWV of the Old Monastery also follow this WHFKQLTXHWKRXJKWKLFNOD\HUVRIwhitewash and plaster PDNHLWKDUGWRPDNHGH¿QLWHVWDWHPHQWVDERXWWKHWHFKQLTXHXVHG7KLVW\SHRI*kath-kuni* with rather high beams used as cross-pieces and for the closing of wall fronts is common at various other places, for example at Lippa, which is located app. 5 km west of Spillo.

#### *Thangi, village and temple compound*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Thangi is a village located on the right banks of the Tedong Valley, which is a side valley of the Sutlej Valley, app. 12 km south of Spillo. Already the entrance gate to the village follows a timber lacing tradition. It is a kind of *dholmaide* construction with wooden boards closing the open facing ends of the wall between the single *cheol*, similar to the construction from /DEUDQJLQ)LJEXWXVLQJZHOOGUHVVHG stones. The wall thickness was measured with 41 cm. At 11 x 13 cm (W/H), the timbers are DSSVTXDUHZLWKDYHUWLFDOGLVWDQFHRIFPWRFPIURPHDFKRWKHU

The solid core of village houses (Fig. 4.80) as well as the way the window frames were mounted is close to the WHFKQLTXHDQGSUHFLVLRQXVHGDWWKHLabrang Fortress tower. The height of WKHEHDPVHTXDOVWKHKHLJKWRIVHYHUDORIWHQWZRVWRQHOD\HUVVHHQXPEHULQ)LJ For closing the *cheol* at the corners, various methods were developed: One method that can be found at simple village residential buildings or stables, was already shown for Labrang in )LJE\XVLQJKLJKZRRGHQERDUGVRUEHDPVRIWKHOHQJWKRIWKHZDOOWKLFNQHVV\$QRWKHU method found at *kath-kuni* structures is that the runner beams within the *cheol,* which face LQZDUGVDUHQRWRI IXOOKHLJKW¿OOLQJWKHYHUWLFDOLQWHUVSDFHEHWZHHQWKH UXQQHUEHDPV VHH number 2 in Fig. 4.80). Some of these lower beams are covered with one layer of stones or are laid on top of a layer of stones so as to save wood. Another method is to close the end of a *cheol* with a beam placed between the two runner beams (see number 1 in Fig. 4.81). In this case stones are not visible at the *FKHROҲV* end.

At the temples of 7KDQJLVHYHUDOOD\HUVRIVWRQH¿OOWKHYHUWLFDOVSDFHEHWZHHQWKH*cheol* (Fig. 6LQFHWKLVVSDFHLVWRRKLJKWREH¿OOHGE\RQHEHDPDIXUWKHUVXSSRUWLQJSLHFHRIZRRG was introduced below each corner crossing of two *cheol* (number 1 in Fig. 4.82). The wall thickness is app. 47 cm. The runner beams are up to 18 cm in height, and the vertical distance between them is also app. 47 cm.

Columns to hold the roof of stables are made as *farque*FRQVWUXFWLRQVQRW¿OOHGZLWKVWRQHV similar as shown at Karla in Fig. 4.73.

Fig. 4.80 (Top) Thangi. Middle Kinnaur. Verandas attached to the *kath-kuni* core of the building. Fig. 4.81 (Bottom, left) 7KDQJL\$EHDP¿OOVWKHLQWHUVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHUXQQHUEHDPV Fig. 4.82 (Bottom, right) Thangi. Supporting piece (1) of wood below each corner crossing of two *cheol* (2).

#### *4.4.4.e Koti banal (Uttarakhand) for comparison*

:LWKDKHLJKWRIXSWR¿YHVWRUH\VVWUXFWXUHVLQWKHYamuna Valley in the Rajgarhi region of 8WWDUNDVKLVKRZVLPLODULWLHVLQVKDSHDQGEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVWRVWUXFWXUHVIRXQGLQVHYHUDO villages of Kinnaur, e.g. in Thangi. As reported by Handa (2008a: 81), in most of the regions of Uttarakhand, the *kath-kuni* wall type is notably uncommon. This type of construction in WKLVUHJLRQPD\UHIHUEDFNWRDSS\HDUVDJR5DXWHOD-RVKL5DXWHODHWDO In Thangi, some parts within one construction may show the use of clay mortar, while other parts appear dry-packed. For this WHFKQLTXHDWKoti banal (as an example besides other places like Dakhiyatgaon, Guna or Dharali), the use of a paste made of pulses (lentils) as mortar is reported (Rautela et al. 2008). At residential structures in Thangi, wall thickness is between app. 40 cm to 50 cm. Koti banal structures have a wall thickness of app. 50 cm to 60 cm (ibid.). \$WWKHVHVWUXFWXUHVDGL൵HUHQFHWRWKH*kath-kuni* in Kinnaur is the use of wall brackets (also known as shear keys). For a Koti banal construction, the use of lap and nailed joints is documented (Rautela, Joshi 2008: 478).

#### *K a n a m , v i l l a g e a n d t e m p l e s*

\$OWPWRP¶´1¶´(&RPSDUHGWRLabrang, a bigger vari-HW\RIWHFKQLTXHVZDVIRXQGLQKanam. Early residential structures (*khyum*) built of wood and stone go back more than 250 years (ibid. 45, 323). The following examples show a variety of GL൵HUHQWFRQVWUXFWLRQVLQWKLVYLOODJH

*Kath-kuni* and *dhol-maide* are commonly used in Kanam. The Palden Lhundup Gephel Monastery (locally known as "Khache Lhakhang") is situated within a courtyard surrounded by a timber-laced structure, where the vertical interspace between the *cheol* is raised by one or more additional wooden cross-pieces placed at the corners and with a length of the thickness of the wall (number 1 in Fig. 4.83). This method of closing the corner with wooden beams is also shown with an example of a residential structure (Fig. 4.84). At the Kangyur Lhakhang, a *dhol-maide* construction was erected with runner beams of a vertical distance of 80 cm without closing the corners with wooden elements (Fig. 4.85). The wooden cross-pieces (round and VTXDUHVKDSHGZHUHFRQQHFWHGZLWKlap joints and alternatingly laid below and on top of the facing beams (number 1 in Fig. 4.85).

A small residential structure was attached to the Kangyur Lhakhang (Fig. 4.86). Walls were built with the *dhaji-dewari* WHFKQLTXHRQDVWRQHSOLQWKRIDKHLJKWRIDSSFPDERYHJURXQG level. Wooden pillars were placed at a distance of app. 80 cm on a foundation beam with a beam on top to carry the URRI(DFK¿HOG EHWZHHQWKHVH SLOODUVZDV YHUWLFDOO\ GLYLGHGLQWR WKUHHVPDOOHU¿HOGVE\KRUL]RQWDOERDUGVZKLFKZHUH¿[HGZLWKQRWFKHVLQWKHSLOODUV,QWKHVH UHFWDQJXODUIUDPHVWZRFURVVZLVHSODFHGERDUGVGLDJRQDOO\¿WLQWRHDFKRWKHU7KHVSDFHLQ EHWZHHQWKHERDUGVLV¿OOHGZLWKGUHVVHGVWRQHVDQGFOD\mortar. The space between the pillars is partially also used to integrate door and window frames. From a static point of view, the crosswise position of the boards in-between horizontal and vertical elements strengthens the wall against horizontal forces as a kind of 'ZLQGEUDFLQJ¶7KHKRUL]RQWDOWLPEHUVNHHSWKHFRQstruction from falling apart. The *dhajji-dewari*FRQVWUXFWLRQFDQEHFDWHJRULVHGDVµUHVWUDLQHG¶ masonry, pointing to the use of a soft PRUWDU FI/DQJHQEDFK IQ:RRGDQG stone structures are in general multi-storey with a maximum of three storeys (Negi Loktus 2015: 323).

Fig. 4.83 (Top) Kanam. Middle Kinnaur. Palden Lhundup Gephel Monastery. Fig. 4.84 (Bottom, left) Kanam. Village house. Timber-laced structure with corners strengthened by additional wooden beams. Fig. 4.85 (Bottom, right) Kanam. Kangyur Lhakhang. *Dhol-maide* construction.

Fig. 4.86 (Left) Kanam. *Dhajji-dewari* structure attached to the Kangyur Lhakhang. Fig. 4.87 (Right) Kalpa. *Dhajji-dewari* structure on the upper ÀRRURIDYLOODJHKRXVH6HHDUURZ

### *Kalpa*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Kalpa is a hamlet in the close vicinity of Rekong Peo. *Kath-kuni* constructions are traditionally predominant. Some walls are made as *dhajjidewari*, e.g. as lighter constructions on the second ÀRRURIDUHVLGHQWLDOEXLOGLQJ)LJ The use of *dhajji-dewari* in Kinnaur is in general subordinate to *kath-kuni* constructions. However, for several buildings this WHFKQLTXHZDVDOVRXVHGLQWKLVGLVWULFW±VLPLODUWRWKH Shimla District located further west, for example, in Sainj according to a drawing given in Dave et al. (2013: 132).

At the ruin of a residential structure, which was made as a *kath-kuni* construction, facing EHDPV±[FP:+ZLWKDKHLJKWRIWZROD\HUVRIVWRQHZHUHGRFXPHQWHG)LJV 7KHZLGWKRIDZDOOLVEHWZHHQFPDQGFP7KH¿OOLQJEHWZHHQWKH beams is rubble stone, and ends with a dressed stone.

### *Ribba / RW V Ɨ E D / K D N K D Q J 7U D Q VO DW R U ¶V 7H P SO H*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Ribba is a small village on top of the hill along the left bank of the Sutlej River. The /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJZDVORFDWHGLQDVPDOOIRUHVWJODGH ZLWKDJRRGYLHZXSVWUHDPLQWRWKHULYHUYDOOH\,WVIRXQGDWLRQFDQEHGDWHGEDFNWRWKHth/ early 10th FHQWXU\ FI .OLPEXUJ6DOWHU /XF]DQLWV  ,Q WKH DXWKRU documented the structure of this temple. Unfortunately, it burned down later in the same year. It showed a type of *kath-kuni*FRQVWUXFWLRQLQDGHFRUDWLYHPDQQHU±FRQWUDU\WRWKHFRPPRQO\ simple structural appearance of a *kath-kuni* construction ±E\XVLQJEHDPVSURWUXGLQJIURPWKH RXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHZDOODQGSDLQWLQJWKHLUIURQWEODFNWKHUHVWRIWKHIDFDGHZDVSDLQWHGZKLWH Just the pillars, window facings and window frames were kept red. A thick layer of whitewash FRYHUHGWKHZKROHIDFDGHZKLOHWKHLQVLGHZDVSODVWHUHG)LJ

Fig. 4.88 Kalpa. Ruin of a *kath-kuni* village house.

)LJ Kalpa. Interior of the *kath-kuni* wall between WKHUXQQHUEHDPVLV¿OOHGZLWK rubble stone.

)LJ Kalpa. Connection of the ÀRRUEHDPVWRWKH*kathkuni* wall structure.

)LJRibba. Middle Kinnaur. North facade.

The door entrance was a wooden panel construction. The ground plan of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD* was DSSVTXDUHZLWKDQLQWHULRUOHQJWKRIWKHUHDUZDOORIFPDQGDQH[WHULRUOHQJWKRIDSS FP7KHZDOOWKLFNQHVVZDVDSSFPPHDVXUHGZLWKRXWSURWUXVLRQRIthe cross-pieces). The height of the wall measured at its outside app. 4 m (rear wall), at its inside app. 355 cm )LJ5HFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHSURFHVVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQIURPERWWRPWRWRS*cheol* were put LQSRVLWLRQDVDSOLQWKOD\HUVHHQXPEHU,LQWKH:HVWHOHYDWLRQRI)LJ,QWKHQH[W layer, cross-pieces (II), which protrude from the outer surface of the wall, were placed on top of the *cheol*DQGZHUHÀXVKPRXQWHGWRWKHLQVLGHIRUODWHULQWHULRUplastering. The interspace between these FURVVSLHFHVSUREDEO\¿OOHGZLWKZRRGZDVSODVWHUHGDQGZKLWHZDVKHG\$SDLU of outwardly and inwardly facing runner beams (III) was again laid on top of this layer of cross-pieces, and so on. After the third layer of cross-pieces, the following three layers of runner beams (IV) show carved ornaments. The carved window frame (V) was made as part of the ZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG¿[HGEHWZHHQcross-pieces (a) and the heads of runner beams (IV). The window frame at its bottom was connected to the window board (VI). At its top, the window frame was connected to a carved beam, which acted as lintel (VII). The gap between the runner beams at the corner junctions was covered by a corner pillar and adjoining wooden pilaster VWULSVVHHQXPEHU9,,,LQKRUL]RQWDOVHFWLRQV\$\$DQG%%LQ)LJ

The *kath-kuni* construction at Ribba used timber to a high extent. The roof at the time of survey was a ÀDWroof construction with a covering metal sheet tent roof. Its wooden subconstruction pointed towards a former wooden tent construction, hypothetically covered with wooden shingles as is traditionally common in this region, compared, for example, with the temples in Sunnam or Karla.

#### 4.5 Shimla District (Rampur Division)

#### *Sarahan, %KƯPƗ.ƗOƯ7HPSOH*

\$OWP¶"1¶"E. Sarahan is a village embedded in deodar forests. The stones within the *kath-kuni* structure are well dressed. Like in the fortress tower of Labrang (see Fig. 4.77), the high precision of construction has to be emphasised and points towards a way of representing HOLWHVWDWXV7KHIURQWRIWKHVWRQHVLVSUHFLVHO\ÀXVKPRXQWHGZLWK the timber construction. As visible at the ends of the *cheol*, the interspace between the runner EHDPVLV¿OOHGZLWKWZRIXUWKHUEHDPV±VLPLODUWRFRQVWUXFWLRQVDW7KDQJLVHH)LJRU at Labrang (see Fig. 4.77). Thus, in a front view there are visible four beams laid beside each RWKHUDQGQRIXUWKHU¿OOLQJPDWHULDO/DSMRLQWVFRQQHFWLQJUXQQHUEHDPVRYHUODSDSSFP

### 4.6 Kullu, western Lahaul and Chamba

This part concerns composite wall constructions in the districts Kullu (village of Manali, alt. PZHVWHUQLahaul (village of Udaipur, alt. 2,650 m) and Chamba (village of Purthi, alt. P&KDPED7RZQDOWP7KHHOHYDWLRQGL൵HUHQFHUDQJHVDWDSSPDQGVHSD-UDWHVWKLVUHJLRQLQWRGL൵HUHQW]RQHVUHJDUGLQJDYDLODELOLW\RISDUWLFXODUW\SHVRIWLPEHUDQGclimate conditions. Kangra towards the south continues at low altitude, while towards =DQJVNDULQ the north and Lahaul in the east, altitudes increase.

Regarding climate data, Manali in Kullu compared to Spillo in Kinnaur (alt. 2,400 m) shows a higher annual average temperature (15.1°C versus 12.2°C) and about 2.5 times the amount of an-QXDOSUHFLSLWDWLRQPPYHUVXVPP\$WPPWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQPLQLPXPDQG maximum precipitation during one year in Manali is relatively high compared to the surrounding places: Udaipur in Lahaul with 122 mm, Spillo in .LQQDXUZLWKPPDQGPurthi in Chamba with 157 mm. Places within Chamba District like Chamba Town and Bharmour show higher differences, with 454 mm and 588 mm, respectively. In the whole region, snowfall can be strong. 7KHGL൵HUHQFHLQWKHDQQXDODYHUDJHWHPSHUDWXUHEHWZHHQManali in Kullu and Udaipur in Lahaul ZLWK&LVZLGHUWKDQFRPSDUHGWRSpillo in Kinnaur. On the other hand, at 1,057 mm, the difference concerning the annual precipitation in Udaipur is less compared to Purthi and Chamba Town in Chamba District, and Bharmour and Manali in Kullu. Comparing Udaipur in Lahaul and Purthi in Chamba, at app. 2°C the annual average temperature in Udaipur is slightly less and the

)LJRibba. (Opposite page) /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ*Kath-kuni* construction.

Top: Horizontal section A-A with a new structure attached to the east.

Centre: Horizontal section B-B.

Bottom left: West elevation.

Bottom right: Vertical section of the west wall.

1 = &URVVSLHFH

2 = 5XQQHUEHDP


#### 282 Chapter IV

DQQXDOSUHFLSLWDWLRQDWPPLQPurthi slightly higher. A comparison between the annual precipitation in Keylong in eastern Lahaul and Udaipur in western Lahaul shows an increase towards the west, which continues into Chamba District. Due to low altitude, places in Chamba District, like Chamba Town and Bharmour, are warmer with an average annual temperature of 20.7°C in Chamba Town and 15.1°C in Bharmaur. At Purthi, which is located at a higher altitude than Chamba Town and Bharmour, annual precipitation decreases considerably. Of all the discussed places in this region, Chamba Town and Bharmour are hit most by monsoons during July with PPDQGPPUHVSHFWLYHO\\$OOWKHPHQWLRQHGUHJLRQVDUHIRUHVWHGVHH0DS

,QÀXHQFHVRQroof constructions by the given climate conditions explain the use of pitched roofs primarily covered with slates in Chamba, Bharmaur and Manali. At higher altitudes, like at Purthi or 8GDLSXUDFKDQJHWRZDUGVÀDWearth roofs is evident. Exceptions are religious structures such as the 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHLQUdaipur or the Hadimba Temple in Manali, which are covered with wooden slats. Handa (2008b: 131) reports of places along the Chamba border on the Jammu and Kashmir side, which prefer ÀDWURRIVDOWKRXJKHQRXJKdeodar would be available. According to Handa (2001: 130), gable roofs may have been a development from a ÀDWroof around the 18th century, and he mentions the Devi-Kothi Temple in Chamba as the earliest example in this region (Handa 2001: 130).

### 4.6.1 Kullu District

### *4.6.1.a Investigated objects*

### *Manali, village and Hadimba Temple*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Manali is located in the north of Kullu District close to the borders of Lahaul and Kangra. In Kullu *kath-kuni* constructions are common. An example outside of Manali is the castle in 1DJJDUFI%HUQLHU3ODWH,QVRPHSDUWV of Manali (for example, in Vashist and Old 0DQDOLZH VWLOO¿QG GL൵HUHQWWUDGLWLRQDOFRPposite constructions, such as *kath-kuni*, *dhol-maide* or wood frame constructions. In some cases buildings are attached to each other, leaving only a small gap in-between. A connection between two farm houses was simply made by completing the two walls adjoining each other using a *kath-kuni* construction for each of these. At some buildings, the horizontal brown EHDPVEHWZHHQZKLWHZDVKHG¿OOLQJPDWHULDOLQFUHDVLQJO\XQGHUOLQHWKHOLQHDUVWUXFWXUHRIWKH building.

The Hadimba Temple (1553 CE, Handa 2001: 236) is not a *kath-kuni* structure as sometimes propagated, but rather a timber frame structure with wooden pillars and massive horizontal wooden beams in-between.161 On top of these horizontal beams, which are of the length of the interspace between two posts, wooden cross-pieces are placed, as we know from *cheol* con-VWUXFWLRQV7KH¿OOLQJEHWZHHQWKHWLPEHUHOHPHQWVLVHLWKHUVWRQHRU¿UHGbrick, though this remains unclear due to the thick layer of whitewash.

<sup>161</sup> &I SLFWXUHV 9: 9: 9:  LQ WKH:HVWHUQ +LPDOD\D\$UFKLYH 9LHQQD 2QOLQH https://whav.aussereurop.univie.ac.at/ic/, access: 06/2016.

### 4.6.2 Western Lahaul

#### *4.6.2.a Investigated objects*

### *Udaipur, 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOH*

\$OWP¶´1¶´(Udaipur is a village located along the banks of the Chandrabhaga River. On three sides except along the entrance, the walls of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD* of the 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHDUHPDGHDVD*kath-kuni* construction using deodar wood. The door entrance is a wooden panel construction. The ground plan of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD*LVDSSVTXDUH with 317 x 306 cm. The interior length of the rear wall and of the lateral walls is 222 cm 7KDNXU)LJ7KHZDOOWKLFNQHVVLVDSSFPVLPLODUWRRibba with 47 cm). 7KHKHLJKWRIWKHZDOOPHDVXUHGDWLWVRXWVLGHLVDSSFPDQGDWLWVLQVLGHDSSFP

At the corners, wooden pillars are placed overlapping the wall by app. 6 cm (number 1 in Figs. DQG7KHHQGVRIWKHEHDPVIDFLQJRQHDQRWKHUGLVDSSHDUEHKLQGWKHFRUQHUSLOODUV similar to WKH/RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLQ5LEEDVHHQXPEHULQ)LJDQGQXPEHULQ)LJ 7KHZDOOLVKRUL]RQWDOO\GLYLGHGE\ZRRGHQcross-pieces, which protrude from the wall E\DSSFPQXPEHULQ)LJ7KHconstruction of the layers between the runner beams is hidden behind the wall SODVWHUDQGWKHTXHVWLRQIRUWKHW\SHRIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDORIWKLVOD\HU remains open. The plaster was not whitewashed and maintains its natural brown colour.

\$PDLQGL൵HUHQFHWRWKHFRPPRQO\NQRZQ*kath-kuni* constructions is the use of four corner pillars. These are placed in front of the ends of the outwardly facing runner beams (number 1 LQ)LJFRQVHTXHQWO\KLGLQJWKHUXQQHUEHDPVကHQGV-XVWEHVLGHWKLVSLOODUWKHLQZDUGO\ IDFLQJ UXQQHUEHDPSURWUXGHV IURPWKHZDOO VHHQXPEHULQ)LJ ,QFRPSDULVRQLQ Ribba the end of the inwardly facing runner beam was covered by a carved blind-wood (com-SDUHQXPEHU9,,,LQ)LJ

Since it was not possible to look into the wall construction, these evidences hypothesise, simi-ODUO\WRWKHZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH/RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLQ5LEEDWKDWWKHZLGWKRIWKHZDOOLV VKDSHGE\WKHZLGWKRIWZRUXQQHUEHDPVSODFHGEHVLGHHDFKRWKHU±NHHSLQJWKHTXHVWLRQRSHQ IRUWKHH[LVWHQFHRIDKRUL]RQWDOLQWHUVSDFHEHWZHHQWKH UXQQHUEHDPVDQGWKHW\SHRILQ¿OO material used for this hypothetical interspace.

This kind of combination of a *kath-kuni* structure and corner pillars shows traces of an early period in the use of the *kath-kuni* system and a possible former use of pillar-based constructions. Regarding the thickness of the walls, the use of corner pillars and of protruding cross-SLHFHVWKHEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHDSSOLHGIRUPDNLQJWKHZDOOVDWWKH/RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLQRibba LVFORVHWRWKHRQHDWWKH0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOH\$VWULNLQJGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQWKH0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ Temple in Udaipur and the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLQRibba is that the builders paid obviously PRUHDWWHQWLRQWRDQDUWLVWLFDSSHDUDQFHRIWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHDWWKH/RWVƗED/KDNKDQJE\FDUYing the outer surface of the runner beams. Conversely, the facade of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD* at Udaipur remains plain without any further decoration.

)LJ7RS Udaipur. Lahaul. Ground plan of the 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHZLWKFRUQHUSLOODUVDW the four corners of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD*. 1 = &RUQHUSLOODU 5XQQHUEHDPV &URVVEHDPV :RRGHQGRRUSDQHO )LJ%RWWRPOHIW Udaipur. 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOH&LUFXPDPEXODWLRQFRUULGRUDORQJD*kath-kuni* wall of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD* (on the left side of the picture). )LJ%RWWRPULJKWUdaipur. 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHCorner pillar at the southern corner of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD*.

)LJ/HIWPurthi. Chamba. Combination of *dhol-maide* and *farque* WHFKQLTXH )LJ5LJKWPurthi. Combination of *dhol-maide* and *farque* WHFKQLTXH

### 4.6.3 Chamba District

#### *4.6.3.a Investigated objects*

#### *Purthi*

\$OW P ¶´1 ¶´( Purthi is a village located in the Chamba District on the route towards Jammu in the north. It is situated along a west-facing slope on the left banks of the Chenab River. At 3XUWKLZH¿QGDYDULHW\RIWUDGLWLRQDOEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV Some recent two-storey buildings were constructed purely with stone without any content of timber. *Dhajji-dewari* constructions show close similarities to those observed in the adjoining province Jammu and Kashmir, where this WHFKQLTXHLVFRPPRQO\XVHG\$YDULDWLRQRIWKH *dhajji-dewari* construction as found in Purthi shows diagonally placed boards within a wooden frame, which spans over the whole height of a ÀRRU EHLQJ YHUWLFDOO\ GLYLGHGLQWR VHYHUDO VPDOOHU¿HOGV±VLPLODUWRD*dhajji-dewari* construction as observed in Kanam in Fig. 4.86.

The *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXHLVZLGHO\XVHG\$SDUWLFXODUW\SHRID*kath*-*kuni* construction as found in Purthi shows a mixture of a *farque* construction and a *kath*-*kuni* construction, with every second or third wooden beam of the *farque* construction running along the whole facade )LJVDQG±VLPLODUWRWKHGHVFULSWLRQRIWKH*cator and cribbage* WHFKQLTXHJLYHQE\ Hughes (2000a). In some cases the dimension of the single beams is relatively large, as shown LQ)LJ

*Ravi Valley*

For the 5DYL9DOOH\3RVWHOHWDOGHVFULEHDFRPPRQPHWKRGRIFRQVWUXFWLRQXVing the *farque* WHFKQLTXHDWWKHFRUQHUVLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWK*cheol*. 6FKLVWTXDUULHVLQWKHFORVH YLFLQLW\KDYHDVWURQJLQÀXHQFHRQWKHGHVLJQRIWUDGLWLRQDODUFKLWHFWXUHLQBharmour.162

<sup>162</sup> Particularly in the close vicinity to Bharmaur (see aforementioned), a VFKLVWTXDUU\VXSSOLHVWKHZKROHUHJLRQZLWK KLJKTXDOLW\PDWHULDO

)LJ7RSBharmaur. Chamba. Corners made as *farque* construction and the wall in-between as *dhajji-dewari* construction.

#### *B h a r m a u r*

\$OW P ¶"1 ¶"E. Bharmaur is a village located about 28 km south-east of Purthi. Due to its position on a slope, it faces north into the Chenab Valley and west into the Ravi Valley. The village of Bharmour shows a similar variety of building tech-QLTXHVDVLVWKHFDVHLQPurthi. Some buildings show a combination of a *farque* construction at the corners of the building with the walls in-between made as *dhajji-dewari* constructions )LJVDQG7KH*farque* WHFKQLTXHVHHPVWREHPRUHFRPPRQLQChamba than in Lahaul, Kullu or Kinnaur. Several *dhajji-dewari* constructions follow the type as described at Purthi, with diagonally placed boards within a wooden frame, which spans over the whole height of a ÀRRUEHLQJYHUWLFDOO\GLYLGHGLQWRVHYHUDOVPDOOHU¿HOGV Fig. 4.100 shows the use of a *farque* construction at the corners of a three-storey construction. At houses built adjacent to each other, the *farque* constructions are built close to each other but without any further structural connection.

Also in Bharmaur, *kath-kuni* LV D FRPPRQO\ XVHG EXLOGLQJ WHFKQLTXH 7KH /DNৢDƗ 'HYƯ Temple at Bharmaur (c. 680 CE, Handa 2001: 136), whose *JDUEKDJ܀KD* measures 420 x 300 FPRXWVLGHDQG[FPLQVLGHZLWKDZDOOWKLFNQHVVRIFPWRFP7KDNXU LVGHVFULEHGDVDFOD\SODVWHUHGWLPEHUERQGHGstructure (Handa 2001: 138, after: ASI re-SRUWE\+DUJUHDYHV7KHPHQWLRQHGZDOOWKLFNQHVVRIFPWRFPDSSHDUVUDWKHU strong compared to an average wall thickness of *kath-kuni* constructions.

)LJ%HORZBharmaur. Combination of *farque* and *kath-kuni* construction. CAD: Martin Pospichal. Details provided by the author.

#### *Chhatrarhi*

\$OW P ¶"1 ¶"E. The use of the *kath-kuni* WHFKQLTXH DW HDUO\ wooden temples in Himachal Pradesh may point towards an early introduction or development of this WHFKQLTXHZLWKWKHĝDNWL'HYL7HPSOHLQChhatrarhi in Chamba dating back to the late 7th/early 8thFHQWXU\FI+DQGD%HUQLHU7KHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHJURXQGSODQ of the *JDUEKDJ܀KD* with 314 x 342 cm inside and 438 x 480 cm outside are bigger than those PHDVXUHGDWWKH0LUNXOƗ'HYƯLQUdaipur. Further, the thickness of the clay-plastered walls, ZKLFKLVEHWZHHQFPDQGFPFI7KDNXUUHVHPEOHVDVL]HRI*kath-kuni* con-VWUXFWLRQVZLWKDZLGWKRIWKHLQ¿OOVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHIDFLQJUXQQHUEHDPVEHLQJODUJHUWKDQ is the case at the 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHLQUdaipur or at the /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJLQRibba (where the wall thicknesses are just 48 cm and 47 cm, respectively).

Fig. 4.100 Bharmaur. *Kath-kuni* construction.

### 4.7 Discussion

7KHLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIORFDOEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQGWKHLUVWUXFWXUDODGDSWDWLRQWRORFDOUHVRXUFHVUHveals striking facets in the development of building methods. Technical details, choice of materi-DOVTXDOLW\RIZRUNPDQVKLSDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIDSDUWLFXODUFXOWXUDOLGHQWLW\DUHORFDOO\GH¿QHG 2QWKHRQHKDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGRUJDQLVDWLRQRIFHUWDLQFUDIWVDQGEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDUH LQÀXHQFHGE\ORFDODQGUHJLRQDOSDUDPHWHUVDQGQHHGWREHXQGHUVWRRGLQDORFDOFRQWH[WDQGRQ the other hand, they need to be considered as part of a wider context, which even includes neighbouring regions and beyond.

Inter alia, climatic parameters are dependent on altitude, and the respective local material resources are an essential basis for certain technical developments. The availability of wood, stone DQGFOD\DQGWKHUHVSHFWLYHTXDOLW\RIWKHORFDOO\DYDLODEOHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOVDOORZDYDULHW\RI PDWHULDOFRPELQDWLRQVDQGPL[WXUHV7KHUHVXOWLQJGHYHORSPHQWVLQEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVFDQQRW be understood in a linear way, but as a complex interdependence between natural and cultural preconditions. For example, increasing availability of wood locally resulted in local building WHFKQLTXHVJRLQJIURPDµVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFLQJQRWXVLQJµODGGHUOLNHULQJEHDPVWRD*dhol-maide*  construction to a *kath-kuni*FRQVWUXFWLRQ±DOOWKUHHEHLQJGLVWLQFWW\SHVRIFRQVWUXFWLRQVUHTXLULQJ LQGLYLGXDOO\DGDSWHGFUDIWWHFKQLTXHV

The intent behind the use of composite constructions is to strengthen a particular structure based RQWKHRSWLPLVHGXVHRIORFDOUHVRXUFHV7KLVWHFKQLFDORSWLPLVDWLRQUHVSRQGVWRVSHFL¿FQHHGVRQ the one hand, and is also the product of a trial-and-error approach that yields construction experience and leads to the avoidance of failure. Here, long-term experience with structural movement must have played an important role, and which has led to a common understanding regarding the FKRLFHRIEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV7LPEHUODFLQJLQWKHZDOOVIRUH[DPSOHLVFRQQHFWHGWRWKHFHLOLQJ and roof system, and together they form a three-dimensional static concept. Spanning thousands and thousands of kilometres from the Mediterranean to the Himalayas along a seismically active zone, such composite constructions developed as culturally-interrelated building traditions. This kind of collective experience and the resulting structural interventions can be considered to be a ཙVHLVPLFFXOWXUHཚ

2YHUWLPHWUDGLWLRQDOEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVKDYHEHHQDGDSWHGDQGFKDQJHG9LHZHGRYHUVHYHUDO FHQWXULHVD VSHFL¿F EXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHFDQQRW QHFHVVDULO\ EHDWWULEXWHGWRDQLPPXWDEOHORFDO WHFKQLTXHVLQFHLWPD\KDYHFKDQJHGLQWKHFRXUVHRIWLPHIRUYDULRXVUHDVRQV6WRQHFOD\DQG ZRRGHQVWUXFWXUHVDQGWKHGL൵HUHQWPHWKRGVRISURFHVVLQJDQGDSSO\LQJWKHPDUHHYLGHQFHRI this continuous change in the context of local resources. The main temples of the early historical West Tibetan monasteries are an example of this. They were consistently built with adobe bricks, although the development of vernacular structures in the areas surrounding the monasteries shows WKHXVHRIGL൵HUHQWEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDVZHFDQVHHLQ7DERLQ6SLWLRULQ.KRUFKDJLQ3XUDQJ Early examples of structures give us an idea of traditions in a certain historical period and allow us to make hypotheses regarding possible developments. And similar to a particularly homogenous earth building tradition in early historical West Tibetan monasteries, a particularly homogenous

#### 290 Chapter IV

wood building tradition can be observed in early wooden temples in Himachal Pradesh, even though each wooden structure has its own local expression regarding the size and proportion of the individual construction components. As shown with the structures of early wooden temples LQ&KKDWUDUKL%KDUPDXU8GDLSXUDQG5LEEDWKHOHQJWKRIWLPEHUXVHGIRUWKHJDUEKDJKDUDQJHV between 3 m and 4.8 m. The wall thickness ranges between 47 cm and 85 cm.

In the following list, construction data for early structures are juxtaposed, according to the sources given before:


The local type of roof construction is an indicator of the interplay of environmental factors and PDWHULDOUHVRXUFHV\$WKLJKHUDOWLWXGHVWKHWUDGLWLRQDOURRILVÀDWDQGPDGHRIFOD\RU*arga*. By contrast, in Himachal Pradesh, at altitudes of about 2,800 m or less, this resulted by tradition in a preference for a pitched roof covered with stone slates, wooden shingles or wooden slats. However, this cannot be considered as a general rule because, for example, in North Pakistan, which borders Ladakh to the north or further west in Nuristan, an east Afghan province, which ERUGHUV3DNLVWDQÀDWURRIVDUHDOVRFRPPRQO\XVHGDWORZHUDOWLWXGHV

In the Western Himalayas, composite constructions were erected in addition to solid stone and earth constructions. For these, the content of wood changes according to local availability, climate conditions and altitude. Several basic types of construction can be observed for the Western +LPDOD\DVEHLQJFRQQRWHGZLWKGL൵HUHQWORFDOGHVLJQDWLRQV,QWKHIROORZLQJOLVWWKHGL൵HUHQW types of constructions are ranked according to an increasing content of wood.


 - Type a. with the vertical distance between the runner beams of a height of more than one beam ranging up to the height of one storey: using only horizontal wooden components (local terms: *bhatar, taq, dhol-maide*)

 7\SHEZLWKWKHYHUWLFDOGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHUXQQHUEHDPVHTXDOOLQJWKHKHLJKWRIRQH EHDPRUDPXOWLSOHRIDEHDP¶VKHLJKWXVLQJKRUL]RQWDOZRRGHQFRPSRQHQWVFRPELQHG ZLWK YHUWLFDOO\DUUDQJHGZRRGHQ µFROXPQOLNH¶FRUQHUFRPSRQHQWV NQRZQDV*cator and cribbage* or locally as *kath-kuni*)

3. Timber frame constructions (local terms: *dhajji-dewari*)

<sup>163</sup> \$YDOXHRIFPIRUWKHZDOOWKLFNQHVVDVJLYHQE\7KDNXUIRUWKH/DNৢDƗ'HYƯ7HPSOHVHHPVWR be rather high for a timber construction, for example a *kath-kuni* FRQVWUXFWLRQDQGLWVYHUL¿FDWLRQZLOOEHSDUWRI further research.

7KHVHGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRI:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQFRQVWUXFWLRQVVKRZDGL൵HUHQWFRQWHQWRIZRRGWKH amount of load-bearing components such as stone or clay changes. Within this study, in particular for Himachal Pradesh, the author observed that construction methods were adapted very sensi-WLYHO\WR NHHS VWHSZLWKFKDQJHVLQWRSRJUDSK\DOWLWXGHVDQGWLPEHU UHTXLUHPHQWV5HJDUGLQJ WKLVVWHSOLNHFKDQJHIURPKLJKHUWRORZHUDOWLWXGHVDVD¿UVWVWHSRIWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVROLGVWRQH and earth structures with a low content of wooden components become solid structures with an increased content of timber but still working with stone and clay as the primary load-bearing components. In the next topographical-change step, the content of wood increases by such an amount that the load-bearing wall components become free-standing timber skeleton structures with stone LQ¿OO7KHLQGLYLGXDOSKDVHVRIVWUXFWXUDOFKDQJHDUHGHSLFWHGLQ)LJ

The cator and cribbage constructions of *kanqah*s in Kashmir, for example, are referred to as "wooden structures" in a resource mapping conducted by INTACH (2010). This designation corresponds to their structural nature, since, from a static point of view, they act as freestanding ZRRGHQVWUXFWXUHVLQVRPHFDVHVHYHQZLWKRXWDVWRQHLQ¿OO

Today, in Ladakh, the use of timber lacing is rare, whereas for historical structures, it was more FRPPRQ ,QHDUO\:HVW7LEHWDQWHPSOHVWKHXVHRI µVLPSOH¶WLPEHUODFLQJQRWDFWLQJDVD ULQJ beam can be traced back to as far back as the 10th century. Regarding the aforementioned examples of early timber lacing, the use of timber lacing acting as a ring beam was already common in Ladakh in the 15th/16th century, and if we look at the construction of the Chigtan Monastery, WKHXVHRIWKHODWWHUWHFKQLTXHPD\HYHQJREDFNDVIDUDVWKHth century. The construction of the central part of the castle of Chigtan points towards this border region being a transition zone for WKHDVVHPEODJHRIGL൵HUHQWEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVUDQJLQJIURPDSUHGRPLQDQWDULG]RQHZLWKVROLG stone and earth constructions to constructions with a high content of timber.

Wall brackets (or shear keys) are traditional, and in some areas, like Uttarakhand, they are commonly used in vernacular architecture. To the north of Ladakh, close to Pakistan, the use of stone constructions and of solid construction-strengthening timber lacing increases. Crossing the northern border towards Pakistan, this feature exhibits a kind of regularity with local variations, stretching from the Pakistan-Indian border, following the Shyok River into the Skardu district, via the Gilgit district and further on to the west to the Swat Valley, the Chitral district and into Nuristan. Along this route the altitude decreases, the amount of forest area increases, and with this, the increased amount of timber used in solid wall constructions results in timber-rich tech-QLTXHVVXFKDV*cator and cribbage*\$ORQJWKHZKROHURXWHVWRQHSULPDULO\TXDUULHGVWRQHLVD prime building material.

6LPLODUGHYHORSPHQWVFDQEHREVHUYHGZKHQFURVVLQJWKH=RMLODIURP.DUJLOWRZDUGVWKHZHVW and entering the Kashmir Valley. In Srinagar the predominant construction is already primarily DZRRGHQFRQVWUXFWLRQZLWKEULFNLQ¿OO.DVKPLULVDQRWKHU]RQHRIWUDQVLWLRQDQGLQWHUIDFHRI GL൵HUHQWFRPSRVLWH EXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHV(QYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVDQG UDZPDWHULDO UHVRXUFHV VXSSRUWWKH GHYHORSPHQW RIFRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQV EDVHG RQZRRG8VLQJ¿UHG EULFNLVDOVR EDVHGRQWKHDYDLODELOLW\RIZRRGIRU¿ULQJDQGDVXLWDEOHTXDOLW\RIFOD\*:H¿QGFDWRUDQGFULEbage*FRQVWUXFWLRQV±VLPLODUWRWKRVHLQ1RUWK3DNLVWDQ±GDWLQJEDFNWRDWOHDVWWKHth century, and *taq* constructions (similar to *bhatar* in north-western Pakistan) dating back at least 200 years, although the latter were possibly even used much earlier, in the 13th/14th century.

Fig. 4.101 Phases of structural change from solid clay and stone constructions (top) towards timber-based constructions (below). CAD: Martin Pospichal. Details provided by the author.

The 'ladder-like timber lacing (*taq*) was optimised by modularly alternating between piers and ED\VZLWKLQWKHZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQ7KHLQWURGXFWLRQRI¿UHGEULFNVZLWKDPLQLPLVHGKHLJKWVLPL-ODUWR ¿QGLQJV DW 6DIUDQEROXLQ7XUNH\ DOORZV XVWR IRUPXODWH D K\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKH EXLOGHUV¶ LQWHQW ZDVWR RSWLPLVHWKH VROLG VWUXFWXUHV¶ HDUWKTXDNHUHVLVWDQFH*Dhajji-dewari* constructions DUHRIWHQIRXQGLQ.DVKPLUDQGFDQEHIRXQGDVVXERUGLQDWHWHFKQLTXHVLQVXUURXQGLQJUHJLRQV such as Chamba, Shimla or Kinnaur. This type of construction is mainly related to a timber frame tradition which extends westwards from the Western Himalayas and continues towards Europe LQGL൵HUHQWORFDOFRQVWUXFWLYHIRUPV)RUURRIDQGZDOOFRQVWUXFWLRQVZHFDQDOVRREVHUYHDIRFDO point for various types developing alongside each other or even merging, as they do in Kashmir, IRUH[DPSOHZKHUHZH¿QGHDUWKHQÀDWURRIVSLWFKHGURRIVFRYHULQJHDUWKHQÀDWURRIVDQGSLWFKHG earthen roofs.

+LPDFKDO3UDGHVKR൵HUVDZLGHYDULHW\RIIDFHWVRI:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DQGHYHORSPHQWVLQEXLOGLQJ WHFKQLTXHV\$WKLJKHUDOWLWXGHVLQFOXGLQJHDUO\HYLGHQFHIURPWKHSHULRGRIKLVWRULFDO:HVW7LEHW in the late 10th century), reduced timber resources supported the development of solid structures made mainly of stone and clay. The availability of suitable raw material enabled this development. In this context, "suitable" in a vernacular context has to be understood to mean "available LQWKHYLFLQLW\DQGFDSDEOHRIEHLQJTXDUULHGDQGSURFHVVHGLQDQHQHUJ\H൶FLHQWPDQQHU´

Structural changes from solid structures into wooden structures occur at higher altitudes, for example, between eastern Lahaul and Middle Kinnaur in the east of Himachal Pradesh, and Chamba and Kullu in the west. A transition zone from purely solid structures with a reduced content of timber towards timber-rich structures such as the *dhol-maide* can be found at an altitude of approx. 3,000 m. Examples of this transition zone are the tower at Gondhla, which is mainly a stone structure combined with the *dhol-maide*WHFKQLTXHWKH2OG7HPSOHRI5RSDZKLFKLVRQHRIWKH ¿UVWYLOODJHVUHDFKHGZKHQDSSURDFKLQJ.LQQDXUIURPWKHQRUWKZKHUHWKH*dhol-maide* building WHFKQLTXHLVFRPPRQO\XVHGDQGWKHYLOODJHRI/DEUDQJLQ0LGGOH.LQQDXUZKHUH*dhol-maide*  and *kath-kuni* constructions are found alongside each other.

0DQ\RIWKHWUDGLWLRQDOFRQVWUXFWLRQV±HVSHFLDOO\DWDOWLWXGHVRIDURXQGPDQGEHORZ±KDYH not been plastered on the outside. One physical aspect of a faster humidity transport and a faster drying process within walls may explain the avoidance of plaster in regions with increasing rainfall below 3,000 m. In structures representing a particularly high social status, timber components were processed in a more elaborate manner. Highly-developed craftsmanship for a particularly well-processed design allows and emphasises this development, which we can observe in solid stone and clay structures as well as in wooden constructions.

With decreasing altitude, the content of wood in wall structures increases and changes from a *dhol-maide* into a *kath-kuni* construction with an increased amount of wood. A *kath-kuni* construction assembles features of a horizontal *dhol-maide* construction and a vertical *farque* construction. In Himachal Pradesh, *farque* constructions are found in Chamba and to a lesser extent also in Kinnaur. The use of the *kath-kuni*WHFKQLTXHPLJKWGDWHEDFNWRWKHth/8th century. Pillars at the corners of some of these early structures (e.g. in Udaipur or Ribba) may hypothetically point towards a more common earlier use of post and beam constructions.

Regarding constructions found within this study at altitudes above 2,000 m, altitude-dependant FRQWLQXRXVWHFKQLFDOPRGL¿FDWLRQV VKRZWKHORFDODGDSWDWLRQRIFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHVWRORcal building material resources and environmental conditions. Building cultural transition zones make these developments particularly evident. And tracing developments from higher to lower altitudes shows a smooth transition from solid earth and stone constructions to stone-wood domi-QDWHGFRQVWUXFWLRQV\$WKLJKHUHOHYDWLRQVZHPDLQO\¿QGVROLGEXLOGLQJVWUXFWXUHVSULPDULO\HDUWK and stone buildings with minimal wood content, but as wood availability continuously increases ZLWKWKHGHFUHDVHLQDOWLWXGHFRQVWUXFWLRQPHWKRGVVKRZDQLQFUHDVLQJSURSRUWLRQRIZRRG±DQG QRWMXVWVLPSO\PRUHZRRGEXWWKHWLPEHUFRQVWUXFWLRQWHFKQLTXHVWKHPVHOYHVFKDQJHWRDGDSWWR the higher proportion of wood.

### V. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

### 6ඎආආൺඋඒ

&RYHULQJDWKHPDWLFDOO\EURDG¿HOGWKLVERRNDWWHPSWVWRH[DPLQHWKHPDWHULDODVSHFWVRIFUDIW DQGEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQVDSSURDFKHGIURPGL൵HUHQWDQJOHVIURPDPLFURSHUVSHFWLYHVXFKDVORRNing at mineral properties, to a macro perspective including looking at the materialisation of spa-WLDO SURJUDPPHV0HWKRGRORJLFDOO\D YDULHW\ RI GL൵HUHQWWRROVIURPWKH¿HOGV RIDUFKLWHFWXUH anthropology and geology, like building survey, interviews, participant observation, and clay mineralogical examinations in the laboratory allowed the author to go beyond mono-disciplinary perspectives.

In Tibetan Buddhist culture, the consideration of objects in a religio-political and ideological context is a trigger for particular material cultural developments, and these express themselves in the VSDWLDOPDWHULDOGH¿QLWLRQRIVHWWOHPHQWVWUXFWXUHVDVZHOODVLQWKHGHVLJQRILQGLYLGXDOEXLOGLQJ VWUXFWXUHVDQGLQWKHFKRLFHRIFUDIWWHFKQLTXHVDQGEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOV9DULRXVVWHSVDUHWDNHQWR materialise an ideological programme, such as designing the layout of sacred buildings according WRVSHFL¿FSURSRUWLRQVDQGSDWWHUQVRIJHRPHWU\DQGRULHQWDWLRQ,QWKLVFRQWH[WWKHVHOHFWLRQRI PDWHULDOVKDVDVLJQL¿FDQWLPSDFWRQWKHVXUIDFHGHVLJQRIDUFKLWHFWXUHDQGDUWHIDFWV7KHFKRLFH of raw materials and methods of processing are connected to the representation of a particular social status. This study sheds light on the interrelation between an ideological programme, its spatial manifestation and its interconnectivity with behavioural patterns of the local community such as circumambulation rituals. Not only the use of particular precious materials, such as *arga* IRUURRIVDQGÀRRUVEXWDOVRWKHPHWKRGRISURFHVVLQJWKHPDWHULDOVFRQQHFWVWKHSURFHVVRI³PDNing" with a material symbolism within the ideological programme.

Material and materiality in their totality play an essential role in shaping the identity of those who commission or construct a building, as well as of those who use it, such as monks, pilgrims, or farmers, for example. Various crafts are technically related to each other through an exchange of craftspeople and through similarities of material properties and production methods. Vernacular building and craft traditions are based on local knowledge and allow the study of a sustainable construction approach by using a variety of locally-available resources. This vernacular approach VKDSHVYDULRXVSURGXFWLRQSURFHVVHVVXFKDVEULFNPDNLQJWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIURRIVDQGÀRRUV or the production of plasters. Vernacular knowledge of building and craft traditions have evi-GHQWO\EHHQIXVHGXVLQJDVDEDVLVDQLQWHJUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIPDWHULDOVDQGWHFKQLTXHVDVKDV been demonstrated in this book exemplarily with crafts, such as pottery, clay sculpture production DQGVWRYHPDNLQJ7KHSURFHVVDELOLW\RISDUWLFXODUUHJLRQDOO\DYDLODEOHPDWHULDOV±IRUH[DPSOH SROLVKLQJWKHFOD\VXUIDFHVRISRWWHU\VFXOSWXUHVRUURRIV±OHGWRVSHFL¿FPDQXIDFWXULQJVWDQGDUGV ZKLFKLQWXUQHQDEOHGWKHFRGL¿FDWLRQRIFHUWDLQV\PEROLFDQGVRFLDOKLHUDUFKLFDOH[SUHVVLRQV

)XUWKHUPRUHE\H[SORULQJWKH¿QHVWFRPSRQHQWVRIPDWHULDOVZHFDQGLVFRYHUDORWDERXWORFDO building methods. Clay mineralogical research methods allow us to examine building materials DQGWRGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXWWKHSURFHVVLQJWHFKQLTXHVXVHG\$QXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHFRPSOH[ LQWHUSOD\RIPDWHULDOFRPSRQHQWVDQGWKHLUSURFHVVLQJE\GL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIFUDIWVSHRSOHVXJJHVWV a lively transfer of knowledge within local communities. This study reveals such complex interrelations by examining mineral components processed in bricks, roofs, plasters, stoves and pottery from two villages in Ladakh.

This study demonstrates the impact of the natural environment on vernacular architecture, on the GHYHORSPHQW RI SDUWLFXODU EXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQG RQ EXLOGLQJ GHVLJQ5DZPDWHULDO GHSRVLWV FOLPDWHDQGHDUWKTXDNH]RQHVDUHLQWHUGHSHQGHQWO\UHÀHFWHGLQYHUQDFXODUGHFLVLRQVRQWKHFKRLFH RIEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQGGHVLJQ/RFDOUHVRXUFHVDQGWKHPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHVRIORFDOO\DYDLODEOH building materials, and their interaction with climatic conditions and altitude are striking aspects in triggering developments in crafts and building traditions.

\$QLQYHVWLJDWLRQLQWRWKH:HVWHUQ+LPDOD\DVVKRZVÀXLGWUDQVLWLRQVLQWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOO\WULJgered development of stone-clay-wood composite constructions. The respective proportion of material components is rather sensitive to changes in environmental conditions. Connected to this FKDQJHDQLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHORFDOGHYHORSPHQWRIEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDQGORFDOO\URRWHG methods of processing materials go hand-in-hand. Beyond local characteristics, a striking result of this study is that it shows a regionally-superordinate context in the development of a collective XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIEXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQV2QHH[DPSOHRIWKLVLVEXLOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVLQWKHFRQWH[WRI DཙVHLVPLFFXOWXUHཚDQDVSHFWZKLFKVXJJHVWVWKDWORFDOFRPPXQLWLHVDUHÀH[LEOHLQKRZWKH\DGDSW to environmental changes, over great distances, from the Himalayas to the Mediterranean.

### )ඎඍඎඋൾඉൾඋඌඉൾർඍංඏൾඌ

Material culture in a vernacular context is a multi-disciplinary challenge. Based on the research results, further focus on crafts and building traditions in an anthropological context might be promising to achieve a more holistic picture of the interrelation between building materials, build-LQJWHFKQLTXHVDQGFRPPXQLWLHVRIFUDIWVSHRSOHLQYDULRXVUHJLRQVRIWKHZRUOG7KHH[DPLQD-WLRQRIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOVDQGSURFHVVLQJPHWKRGVUHTXLUHVWKHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\FRPELQDWLRQRI technical and natural sciences, and humanities. The transformations of crafts and crafts(wo)manship, including historical, contemporary and future aspects, are a challenge for future research. Furthermore, research on the sustainability of local traditions in an economic, ecological and VRFLDOFRQWH[WZRXOGDOORZXVWRTXHVWLRQFRQWHPSRUDU\GHYHORSPHQWVWROHDUQ IURPWUDGLWLRQ and to direct developments sustainably into the future. Building sites, workshops, transport and WUDGHRUVRFLDOVWDWXVGH¿QLQJTXDOLWLHVDVSRWHQWLDOWULJJHUVRIFKDQJHDUHDOOIDFWRUVZKLFKH[HUW DVWURQJLQÀXHQFHRQNQRZOHGJHWUDQVIHUDPRQJFUDIWVSHRSOH

/LWWOHLVNQRZQDERXWWKHSURFHVVHVDQGH൵HFWVRIWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIFUDIWWUDGLWLRQVQRWRQO\ in terms of technical aspects, but in a wider sense, their impact on social and ecological developments. Each populated area of the globe deals with this topic in its own way. The Himalayas are suitable for investigations of this kind because of their diversity in many aspects. Finally, research on this topic will be needed in a wider and even in a global context.

### VI. APPENDIX CHAPTER III


8469 – Basgo Maitreya Lhakhang. Plaster on pillar.

GSD 3.1 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOH3ODVWHURQSLOODU7RS&XPXODWLYHVXP%RWWRP\*UDLQVL]HFODVVHV

8479 – Basgo Maitreya Lhakhang. Plaster on pillar.

GSD 3.2 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOH3ODVWHURQSLOODU7RS&XPXODWLYHVXP%RWWRP\*UDLQVL]HFODVVHV

8496 – Basgo Maitreya Lhakhang. Plaster on pillar.

GSD 3.3 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOH3ODVWHURQSLOODU7RS&XPXODWLYHVXP%RWWRP\*UDLQVL]HFODVVHV

8482 – Basgo /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ,QWHULRUwall plaster.

GSD 3.4 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOH,QWHULRUwall plaster. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

#### 302 Appendix Chapter III

8483 – Basgo /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ,QWHULRUwall plaster.

GSD 3.5 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOH,QWHULRUwall plaster. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11946 – Basgo /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ,QWHULRUwall plaster.

GSD 3.6 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOH,QWHULRUwall plaster. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11948 – Basgo /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJAdobe brick.

GSD 3.7 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHAdobe brick. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

**Grain size classes**

GSD 3.8 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOH,QWHULRUwall plaster. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

8475

8475

#### 306 Appendix Chapter III

\*6'Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKH URDG¶6DPSOH ,QWHULRUwall plaster. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

8499 – Basgo '*Lhakhang* close to the road'. Exterior wall plaster.

#### **Grain size classes**

GSD 3.10 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOH([WHULRUwall plaster. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

#### 308 Appendix Chapter III

8472 – Basgo '*Lhakhang* close to the road'. Adobe brick.

GSD 3.11Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHAdobe brick. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11933 – Basgo '*Lhakhang* close to the road'. Adobe brick.

GSD 3.12 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHAdobe brick. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

15410 – Basgo Building raw material. *Dzasa*.

#### **Cumulative sum**

GSD 3.13 Basgo. Sample 15410. Building raw material. *Dzasa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11915 – Basgo Building raw material. *Thetsa*.

GSD 3.14 %DVJR6DPSOH%XLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDO*Thetsa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11915

11915

15411 – Basgo Building raw material. *Thetsa*.

GSD 3.15 Basgo. Sample 15411. Building raw material. *Thetsa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

8465 – Basgo Building raw material. *Thetsa* and *dzasa*.

GSD 3.16 Basgo. Sample 8465. Building raw material. *Thetsa* and *Dzasa* mixed. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11952 – Basgo Building raw material. Adobe brick.

GSD 3.17 %DVJR6DPSOH%XLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDOAdobe brick. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

GSD 3.18 Tunlung. Sample 11748. Clay stove. *Thabsa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

15412 – Tunlung Clay stove. *Thabsa*.

#### **Cumulative sum**

**Grain size classes**

\*6'Tunlung. Sample 15412. Clay stove. *Thabsa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

Clay stove. *Thabsa*. **Cumulative sum**

11919 – Ne

GSD 3.20 1H6DPSOHClay stove. *Thabsa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

15515 – Basgo *Tandoor* stove. *Thabsa*.

GSD 3.21 Ne. Sample 15515. *Tandoor* stove. *Thabsa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11751 – Likir *Tandoor* stove. *Dzasa*.

GSD 3.22 Likir. Sample 11751. *Tandoor* stove. *Dzasa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11752 – Likir *Tandoor* stove. *Dzasa*.

GSD 3.23 Likir. Sample 11752. *Thandoor* stove. *Dzasa*. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11763 – Likir Adobe brick.

### **Grain size classes**

GSD 3.24 Likir. Sample 11763. Adobe brick. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

11921 – Likir Clay pit.

GSD 3.25 /LNLU6DPSOHClay pit. Top: Cumulative sum. Bottom: Grain size classes.

GSD 3.26 /LNLU6DPSOH6DQGIRUPL[LQJ7RS&XPXODWLYHVXP%RWWRP\*UDLQVL]HFODVVHV

Basgo – Maitreya Lhakhang

BMA 3.1 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

Basgo – Maitreya Lhakhang

BMA 3.2 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

Basgo – Maitreya Lhakhang

BMA 3.3 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.4 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.5 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.6 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.7 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.8 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

#### Appendix Chapter III

%0\$Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.10 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.11 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.12 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

Basgo – Building raw material

BMA 3.13 Basgo. Building raw material. Sample 15410. Bulk mineral analysis.

Basgo – Building raw material

BMA 3.14 %DVJR%XLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDO6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.15 Basgo. Building raw material. Sample 15411. Bulk mineral analysis.

Basgo – Building raw material

BMA 3.16 Basgo. Building raw material. Sample 8465. Bulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.17 %DVJR%XLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDO6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

Tunlung – Clay stove *(thab)*

BMA 3.18 Tunlung. *Thabsa*. Sample 11748. Bulk mineral analysis.

%0\$Tunlung. *Thabsa*. Sample 15412. Bulk mineral analysis.

Ne – Clay stove *(thab)*

BMA 3.20 Ne. *Thabsa*6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.21 Basgo. *Thabsa*. Sample 15515. Bulk mineral analysis.

Likir – *Thabsa*

BMA 3.22 Likir. *Thabsa*. Sample 11751. Bulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.23 Likir. *Dzasa*. Sample 11752. Bulk mineral analysis.

Likir – Clay pit

BMA 3.24 Likir. Clay pit. Sample 11763. Bulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.25 Likir. Adobe EULFN6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

Likir – Sand

BMA 3.26 /LNLU6DQG6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

Basgo – Maitreya Lhakhang

CMA 3.1 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – Maitreya Lhakhang

CMA 3.2 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – Maitreya Lhakhang

CMA 3.3 Basgo. 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ

CMA 3.4 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ

CMA 3.5 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ

CMA 3.6 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.7 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – '*Lhakhang* close to the road'

CMA 3.8 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – '*Lhakhang* close to the road'

&0\$Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – '*Lhakhang* close to the road'

CMA 3.10 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.11 %DVJRµ/KDNKDQJFORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHClay mineral analysis

Basgo – 'Lhakhang close to the road'

CMA 3.12 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Basgo – Building raw material

CMA 3.13 Basgo. Building raw material. Sample 15410. Clay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.14 %DVJR%XLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDO6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.15 Basgo. Building raw material. Sample 15411. Clay mineral analysis.

Basgo – Building raw material

CMA 3.16 Basgo. Building raw material. Sample 8465. Clay mineral analysis.

Basgo – Building raw material

CMA 3.17 %DVJR%XLOGLQJUDZPDWHULDO6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Tunlung – Clay stove *(thab)*

CMA 3.18 Tunlung. *Thabsa*. Sample 11748. Clay mineral analysis.

Tunlung – Clay stove *(thab)*

&0\$Tunlung. *Thabsa*. Sample 15412. Clay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.20 Ne. *Thabsa*6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.21 Basgo. *Thabsa*. Sample 15515. Clay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.22 Likir. *Tandoor* stove and pottery clay. Sample 11751. Clay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.23 Likir. *Dzasa*. Sample 11752. Clay mineral analysis.

Likir – Adobe brick

CMA 3.24 Likir. Adobe brick. Sample 11763. Clay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.25 Likir. &OD\SLW6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

Likir – Sand

CMA 3.26 /LNLU6DQG6DPSOHClay mineral analysis.

CMA 3.27 /LNLU6DQG6DPSOHClay mineral analysis. Di-octahedral and tri-octahedral components.

CMA 3.28 %DVJR6DPSOHVDQG&RQWHQWRIVPHFWLWHDQGYHUPLFXOLWH

STA 3.1 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6LPXOWDQHRXVWKHUPDODQDO\VLV

STA 3.2 Basgo. /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ6LPXOWDQHRXVWKHUPDODQDO\VLV

STA 3.3 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6LPXOWDQHRXVWKHUPDODQDO\VLV

STA 3.4 Basgo. '*Lhakhang*FORVHWRWKHURDG¶6LPXOWDQHRXVWKHUPDODQDO\VLV

STA 3.5 Basgo. Sample 8465. Raw material. *Thetsa* and *dzasa* mixed. Simultaneous thermal analysis.

STA 3.6 Tunlung. Sample 11748. Raw material. *Thabsa*. Simultaneous thermal analysis.

STA 3.7 Tunlung. Sample 15412. Raw material. *Thabsa*. Simultaneous thermal analysis.

STA 3.8 1H6DPSOHRaw material. *Thabsa*. Simultaneous thermal analysis.

67\$Likir. Sample 11751. Raw material. *Thabsa*. Simultaneous thermal analysis.

IRS 3.1 Tunlung. Sample 15412. Infrared spectroscopy. Below: Showing the content of well-crystallised kaolinite.

IRS 3.2 1H6DPSOH,QIUDUHGVSHFWURVFRS\%HORZ'HWDLOVKRZLQJWKHFRQWHQWRIZHOOFU\VWDOOLVHGNDROLQLWH

### VII. APPENDIX CHAPTER IV


Table 4.3 Climate data.

Abbreviations:

DQQ DQQXDOWHPS WHPSHUDWXUH>&@SUHF SUHFLSLWDWLRQ>PP@DOWLWXGHLQ>P@ǻ GL൵HUHQFH

Climate data according to *Climate data for cities worldwide*: online 11.5.2016. Climate data according to http:// de.climate-data.org/


Table 4.4 Grain size classes.








Table 4.6 Results of clay mineral analysis.


### VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY, CORRESPONDENCE AND INTERVIEWS



HG-DQH'H5RVH(YDQV&KLFKHVWHU:LOH\%ODFNZHOO±


dissertation, Vienna University of Technology.


\*ൺඇඌඌൾඋ\$*Geology of the Himalaya*, New York: Inter Science Publication.


versus/images/pdf/versus\_booklet.pdf, access: 05/2016.

\*ඎඉඍൺ, Om (2006). *Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh*, Delhi: Isha Books.


*Sørensen on the Occasion of his 65*th *Birthday*, eds. Guntram Hazod and Olaf Czaja, :LHVEDGHQ5HLFKHUW9HUODJ±



±


oriented aggregate specimens of soil clays for ;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQDQDO\VLV´*Soil Science* ±


86\$í-XO\2QOLQHKWWSZZZFRQVHUYDWLRQWHFKFRPDFFHVV


*People and their Built Environment*, ed. Amos Rapoport, The Hague, Paris: de \*UX\WHU0RXWRQí


of Qinghai Province (eds.) (2004). *Tibetan Tombs at Dulan, Qinghai*. Beijing: Science Press.



New Delhi: Indraprastha Press.


### 2ඇඅංඇൾൽංർඍංඈඇൺඋංൾඌ


### 3උൾඌൾඇඍൾൽඉൺඉൾඋඌൺඇൽඉඈඌඍൾඋඌආൾඇඍංඈඇൾൽංඇඍඁൾඍൾඑඍ


### &ඈඋඋൾඌඉඈඇൽൾඇർൾൺඇൽංඇඍൾඋඏංൾඐඌ


### IX. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

7KHPDSVDUHQRUWKRULHQWHG'L൵HUHQWVRXUFHVZHUHXVHG6HYHUDOPDSVDUHGUDZQRQWKHEDVLV of satellite images such as Google Earth. Other maps were created with the free and open source geographic information system QGIS Development Team, 2016 (QGIS Geographic Information 6\VWHP 2SHQ 6RXUFH \*HRVSDWLDO )RXQGDWLRQ 3URMHFW KWWSZZZTJLVRUJ )RUWKDW SXUSRVH \*,6 GDWD EDVHG PDSV ZHUH FUHDWHG E\ -DNRE \*UHGOHU DQG JUDSKLFDOO\ ¿QDOLVHG E\ WKH DXWKRU Details were provided by the author. For the maps data were downloaded and adapted. The following data were used. The particular sources are mentioned with abbreviations in the caption of each map.


### &ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,




 1 = *cham* (Tib. *lcam*, secondary beam), often placed on the *dungma* (Tib. *gdung ma*, main beam), the latter resting on one ore more *kawa* (Tib. *ka ba*, pillar).

 2 = *delma* (Tib. *dral ma*, small pieces of wood of a tree or bush), e.g. willow branches are commonly used in WT.

 RUJDQLFOD\HUVSHFL¿FW\SHVRIJUDVVOLNH*yakses*XVHGLQ:7WKHXVHRIDQRUJDQLF layer is commonly known in WT, but not everywhere in CT.

 4 (ground layer) = *yamba* (Tib. *gyam pa*ÀDWVWRQHVRIWHQXVHGLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWK an *arga*URRIRIWHQXVHGLQ&7RU3XUDQJUDUHO\XVHGLQ:7

 4 (upper layer) = *dorug* (Tib. *rdo hrug*VPDOOVWRQHVXVHGLQFRPELQDWLRQZLWKWKH *yamba*EHORZWR¿OOJDSVEHWZHHQWKHELJJHUVWRQHV

5 = *thogdag* (Tib. *thog* ތ*dag*)LVWKH¿UVWOD\HURIFOD\

 6 = *thigsa* (Tib. *thig sa*XSSHUDQG¿QHOD\HURIFOD\ZKLFKLVLQVRPHDUHDVWUDGLWLRQally exchanged or simply added every year and maintained before rain falls.


### &ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,,,

Table 3.1 List of the samples.

Table 3.2 Grain size classes.


## &ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,9



### \$ඉඉൾඇൽංඑ&ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,,,

*Grain size distribution analysis*


#### *Bulk mineral analysis*


BMA 3.18 Tunlung. *Thabsa*. Sample 11748. Bulk mineral analysis.

%0\$ Tunlung. *Thabsa*. Sample 15412. Bulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.20 Ne. *Thabsa*6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

BMA 3.21 Basgo. *Thabsa*. Sample 15515. Bulk mineral analysis.


BMA 3.26 /LNLU6DQG6DPSOHBulk mineral analysis.

### *Clay mineral analysis*


### *Simultaneous thermo analysis*


 *Infrared spectroscopy*


### \$ඉඉൾඇൽංඑ&ඁൺඉඍൾඋ,9

#### *Tables*


### X. INDEX

The index refers to terms used in the text including footnotes and captions, not including terms used in maps. 7KHV\PEROĺUHIHUVWRDIXUWKHUPHQWLRQLQJRIWKHFRQFHUQHGWHUPLQWKHLQGH[

The index is divided into four categories:


### \$උർඁංඍൾർඍඎඋൾൺඇൽർඋൺൿඍඌඋൾඅൺඍൾൽඍൾඋආඌ


*khaam seer* (Kash.) 250 *maharaji* (Kash.) brick 208, 250, 253 building culture 22, 163, 176, 186, 248, 258, 261 EXLOGLQJWUDGLWLRQ *bumpa* 76 *burnishing*WHFKQLTXH butter lamp (Tib. *mar me*) 76 *FDNUDYƗڲDSDUYDWD* (Skt.) 38 canonic 5, 15, 23, 25, 35, 37, 48, 52, 55, 56 FDUSHQWHUĺ*badhai cator and cribbage* 8, 171, 175, 177, 183, 185, 213, *chaar baam*.DVK *cham* (Tib. *lcam*) 60, 62 *chang* (Tib. *chang*) pot 76 *cheol*WHUPXVHGLQ.LQQDXU see also *chzalairi* and *patari*, for the stone layer in the *cheol* see *mait chikor*ĺNRUODP *chökhang* (Tib. *mchod khang*) *chökhor* (Tib. *chos 'khor*) *chökhor sum* (Tib. *chos 'khor gsum*) 28 *chokus* (Nep.) (wooden wedge) 174 *chorten* (Tib. *mchod rten* 56, 125 *chzalairi* (term used in Himachal Pradesh) 181, see also *cheol* and *patari* climate related terms arid climate 201 DULG]RQH cold climate 7, 201, 214 cold zone 201, 224 temperate climate 7, 201, 214 temperate zone 201, 211, 224 collective learning 22 FRPSRVLWHFRQVWUXFWLRQ 

construção Pombalina 178 corner pillar (in Chater IV, Ribba and Udaipur) courtly assembly (Tib. *'dun ma*) 26 crack stopper 187, 231-235 FURVVSLHFHZRRGHQXVHGIRUދODGGHUތOLNHWLPEHU ODFLQJ FXELWĺPHDVXULQJXQLWV custom 21, 22 *GD۬ڲD* (Skt.) 83 *NDܒLGD۬ڲD* (Skt.) 83 *ĞnjOD* (Skt.) 83 *XSDĞnjOD* (Skt.) 83  *YDN܈RGD۬ڲD* (Skt.) 83 *YDۨĞDGD۬ڲD* (Skt.) 83 deer skin 72, see also under "Organic materials" demoness (Tib. *srin mo*) 28, 33, 36 see also *UƗN܈DVƯ* GHVOXGJLQJRIFOD\ Deva Temples (Western Himalayan) 175 *dhajji-dewari* see also *KLPLú GKƗUD۬Ư* (6NW7LE*gzungs*) 84 *dhol-maide* (used in Kinnaur) 8, 255, 256, 260, 262, 263, 267, 270-273, 275, 276, 285, VHHDOVR*bhatar* GL൵XVLRQRIWUDGLWLRQV *dom*ĺPHDVXUHPHQWXQLWV *dona* (Tib. *rdo sna*) VHHDOVR*sana* and *sana dona GRUL\Ɨ*XVHGLQ.LQQDXUĺ*kath-kuni doshing chipa* (Tib. *rdo shing spyi pa doshing zokhang* (Tib. *rdo shing bzo khang*) *dratag* (Tib. *dras thags*) 84 *dren*(Tib. *bran*) GU\LQJVKULQNDJHĺVKULQNDJH *dugmeli* 244, see also *hatil* and *taq dukhang* (Tib. *'du khang*) of Alchi 48 of Lhasa Jokhang 45 of Nyarma 47, 48 of Samye 48

 RI7DQGUXN0RQDVWHU\ of Tholing 35, 46 *dungma* (Tib. *gdung ma*) 60, 62 HDUWKURRIĺURRI HDUWKTXDNHV %XOJDULD Byzantine period 168 +LPDOD\DQHDUWKTXDNHV 0DUPDUDHDUWKTXDNH P-waves 180 S-waves 180 elite (construction) 21, 23, 25, 27, 35, 48, 52, 53, 55, 57, 188, 210, 220, 224, 227, 281 enclosure wall (Tib. *lcags ri*) engobe 208 H[WHULRUSODVWHUĺSODVWHU *Fachwerk* 165, 166 IDPLO\SUD\HUURRPĺ*chökhang farque*WHUPXVHGLQ&KDPED IDWKRPĺPHDVXUHPHQWXQLWV ¿UHGEULFN ¿ULQJVKULQNDJHĺVKULQNDJH ÀDWURRIĺURRI )ORZHU2൵HULQJIHVWLYDOTib. Me tog mchod pa) 28 forests dry deodar forest 211 dry temperate forest 211 moist deodar forest 211 moist forest 212 moist temperate forest 211 needleleaf forest 225 pine forest 210 sub-alpine forest 210 temperate forest 211, 212 JDEOHURRIĺURRI *gaioleiro* 178 JDOOHWHGUXEEOHWH[WXUHĺZDOO *JDUEKDJ܀KD gönkhang* 236ĺ6SLWXNXQGHU³3ODFHV´ JURXQGSODVWHUĺSODVWHU JXLOGĺ*doshing chipa* and *doshing zokhang* KDOIODSMRLQWĺMRLQWV

KDOIWLPEHUHGIUDPHVWUXFWXUHĺWLPEHUVWUXFWXUH KDOYHGMRLQWVĺMRLQWV *hasta*ĺPHDVXULQJXQLWV *hatil*VHHDOVR*taq* and *dugmeli KLPLú*VHHDOVR*dhajjidewari LڲƗ*6NWĺURSH LGHQWLW\ ideology 21, 25, 55, 261 *imantodi*\*U incense burner (stove) 76 incense holder (Tib. *bsang phor*) 72, 76 Indian *YLKƗUD*ĺ*YLKƗUD* LQ¿OOPDWHULDOIRUKDOIWLPEHUFRQVWUXFWLRQĺ timber structure ,QIUDUHG6SHFWURVFRS\,5 356, 357 LQWHULRUZDOOSODVWHUĺSODVWHU *MƗ۪JDOƗ*6NWĺDULGFOD\XQGHU³&OD\´ joints for timber frame components corner half lap joint 178, 235, 236, 238, 240 dove-tailed 267 dowel pegged 231 half lap joint 178, 235, 236, 238, 240, 256, 262 halved joints (halving lap joints) 186, 234, 236, 241 ODSMRLQW 275, 281 *maanvi*+LPDFKDO3UDGHVKVHHDOVR dove tailed) 267 SHJZRRGHQ VKHDUNH\ZRRGHQ wedge (wooden) 174, 176, 208, see also *chokus*  (Nepal) *kath-kuni* (used in Himachal Pradesh) 8, 171, 175, *NDܒLGD۬ڲD*6NWĺ*GD۬ڲD NƗWWK*ĺ*kath-kuni ker*.DVKVHHDOVR*taq kewar*, see also *saret khaam seer* .DVKĺEULFN *khanqah* (Kashmir) 248, 253, 254 *khatak* (Tib. *kha btags*) 71 *khyum* (residential structures in Kanam) 275

NQRZOHGJHWUDQVIHU *korlam* (Tib. *skor lam*) *chikor* (Tib. *phyi skor*) 38 *lingkor* (Tib. *gling skor*) *nangkor* (Tib. *nang skor*) *tsekor* (Tib. *rtse skor*) *kru*ĺPHDVXULQJXQLWV *NXQƗ*ĺ*kath-kuni küngarawa* (Tib. *NXQGJDUDED*) 43 µODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUODFLQJĺZDOO ODSMRLQWĺMRLQWV ODWKĺDOVRUHHG OHDGHURIWKHÀRRULQJĺ*shepön* OHYHOOLQJSLOODUSODVWHUĺSODVWHU *lingkor*ĺ*korlam lingshi*ĺ7KROLQJ *maanvi*ĺMRLQWV magpie (its nest related to roof construction) 61 *kyaka thigsa*ĺXQGHU³&OD\´ *pumdong* (Tib. *bum stong*) 61 *tschogtsang* (Tib. *mchog tshang*) 61 *maharaji*.DVKEULFNĺEULFN *mait*XVHGLQ+LPDFKDO3UDGHVKVWRQHOD\HULQ *cheol*) 267 *PDNĜ¶LN*.W1XULVWDQ *PD۬ڲDOD* 30, 36, 41, 46, 56 mandalic (layout) 46-48, 57 *mani*ZDOO PDWHULDOFXOWXUH PDWHULDOTXDOLW\ *Mauer*ĺZDOO measuring stick 44 measuring units 44  *D۪JXOD dom* (Tib. ¶*dom*) fathom  *hasta kru* (Tib. *khru*) *sormo* (Tib. *sor mo*) span *tho* (Tib. *mtho*) mobile residence 43 mobile ruler 5, 32, 33 modern 23 PRUWDU

 255, 257, 261, 263, 275 mould 70-73, 80-82, 85, 88, 206, 208 *nakur'ä*:J1XULVWDQ nail (wooden) 236 Namtong festival 33 *nangkor*ĺ*korlam Normsteife* 127 *opus craticium* 165 orientation (of buildings) 5, 15, 27, 41, 48-52, 57, *patari* (used in Himachal Pradesh) 181*,* ĺDOVR *cheol* and *chzalairi* 3DWWDQ%DUDPXOOD'LVWULFW SHJZRRGHQĺMRLQWV pentalic (layout) 36, 37, 41, 46, 47, 57 *SLN¶nj*:J1XULVWDQ *SL۪JDOƗ*6NWĺURSH SLWFKHGURRIĺURRI SLWFKHGHDUWKURRIĺURRI SODVWHU H[WHULRUSODVWHU 220, 222 JURXQGSODVWHU LQWHULRUZDOOSODVWHU levelling pillar plaster 103 SODVWHUVDPSOH XSSHUSODVWHU 222 ZDOOSODVWHUĺZDOO SRWWHU\ 347 SRWWHU\FOD\ pottery wheel 70, 71 *pumdong*ĺPDJSLH process of adaption 22

protecting temple 5, 27, 33, 56, see also border taming temple SURWHFWRUV¶FKDSHOĺ*gönkhang quincha* (Peru) 163, 164 *rabsey* (Bhutan) 171, 172, 185 UDGGOHĺ*geru Rähmkonstruktion* (Ger.) 166 *UƗN܈DVƯ* (Skt., Tib. *srin mo*) 28, see also demoness UDPPHGHDUWK 265 UDQGRPVWRQHZDOOĺZDOO UDZPDWHULDO 355 reed 164, see also lath UHJLRQDO religio-political programme 5, 15, 25, 33, 37, 55, religious gathering place 5, 32 *reumig gupa* (Tib. *re'u mig dgu pa*) 47 UHVLGHQWLDOVWUXFWXUHVLQ.DQDPĺ*khyum* ULQJEHDPĺEHDP ULWXDOVSDFH൵ 5LJVXP\*|QSR7LE*rigs gsum mgon po* 40, 41, 56 UXQQHUEHDPĺEHDP URRI HDUWKURRI ÀDWURRI

 gable roof 18, 220, 282 pitched earth roof 216 SLWFKHGURRI rope URSHRIJUDVVĺ*dratag LڲƗ* (Skt.) 84  *SL۪JDOƗ* (Skt.) 84  *VX܈XPQƗ* (Skt.) 84 *rüshing* (Tib. *rus shing*) 83 sacred plan 5, 35 *sana* (Tib. *sa sna*) *sana dona* (Tib. *sa sna rdo na*) VDQG 126, 127, 130, 131, 133-138, 141, 143, 145, 147, 156-161, 180, 210, 221, 223, 323 *sangre* (Tib. *sang re*) 71 *saret*VHHDOVR*kewar shanashil* (Turk.) 164 VKHDUNH\ZRRGHQĺMRLQWV *shepön* (Tib. *zhal dpon*) *shikari*-tower 227 VKLQJOHZRRGHQ VKULQNDJH drying shrinkage 145 ¿ULQJVKULQNDJH shrinkage test 6, 147 VLHYHĺXQGHU³7RROV´VHHDOVR*sangre* VLHYLQJ 6LPXOWDQHRXV7KHUPDO\$QDO\VLV67\$ slat (wooden) 268 VROLGZDOOĺZDOO *sormo*ĺPHDVXULQJXQLWV VSDQĺPHDVXULQJXQLWV *Ständerbau* (Ger.) 165 VWRQHZDOOĺZDOO VWRYHPDNLQJ VWUXFWXUDOWLPEHUĺWLPEHUVWUXFWXUH ĞnjODĺ*GD۬ڲD*

*VX܈XPQƗ*6NWĺURSH

*tabique* (used in Portugal) 163 WLPEHUIUDPHVWUXFWXUHĺWLPEHUVWUXFWXUH *tandoor* (stove) 77, 133-135, 143, 144, 147, 318- 320, 347 *taq* see also *hatil* and *dugmeli taqshe*.DVK *tshun*.DVK *taquezal* (used in Nicaragua) 163 teapot (Tib. *khog ldir*) 76 *thab* 160, 332-334, 346, 347, see also *thabsa* under "Clay" *thathar* (also: *thatar*VHHDOVRFURVVSLHFH *tho*ĺPHDVXULQJXQLWV WLPEHU VHH DOVRGL൵HUHQWVSHFLHVXQGHU³7LPEHU´ timber structure KDOIWLPEHUHG 181 LQ¿OOPDWHULDOIRUKDOIWLPEHUFRQVWUXFWLRQ 163, 176, 187, 267, 283 VWUXFWXUDOWLPEHU 208, 212, 213, 224, 246, 248, 267 timber frame structure 6, 163, 164, 187, 188, 253, 282 wind bracing 275 WUDGLWLRQ൵ *tsangkhang* (Tib. *gtsang khang*) 45-48, 56 *tschogtsang*ĺPDJSLH *tsekor*ĺ*korlam tsatsa* (Tib. *tsha tsha*) 26  *tsatsakhang* (Tib. *tsha tsha khang*) 41 *tshun*.DVKĺ*taq tsuglagkhang* (Tib. *gtsug lag khang*) RI6HUNKDUĺ6KHU RI1\DUPD of Old Khartse 37 of Samye 37, 48 of Tabo 37, 48, 53 of Tholing 35, 37, 47, 48 *XSDĞnjOD*ĺ*GD۬ڲD*

XSSHUSLOODUSODVWHUĺSODVWHU XSSHUSODVWHUĺSODVWHU *utse* (Tib. *dbu rtse*of Samye Monastery) 48 vernacular 5, 7, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20-23, 25, 35, 37, 43, 52, 53, 55, 57, 60, 77, 161, 163, 167, "simple" vernacular 23 vernacular design 23 vernacular identity 23 *YDN܈RGD۬ڲD*ĺ*GD۬ڲD YDۨĞDGD۬ڲD*6NWĺ*GD۬ڲD* YDVVDOVĺ*dren YLKƗUD* Indian *YLKƗUD*47, 48 wall galleted rubble texture 208 µODGGHU¶OLNHWLPEHUODFLQJ 175-177, 181, 183, 187, 188, 231, 232, *Mauer* 162 random stone wall 208, 236 VROLGZDOO VWRQHZDOO 257, 262, 263, 270, 273 ZDOOSODVWHU 303, 305-307 ZDOOVXUIDFH ZDWWOHDQGGDXE 232, 257 ZHGJHZRRGHQĺMRLQWV whitewash 54, 150, 218, 221, 222, 224, 236, 273, ZLOORZPDWĺZLOORZXQGHU³7LPEHU´ ZLQGEUDFLQJĺWLPEHUVWUXFWXUH ;UD\GL൵UDFWLRQ;5' *yülsa* (Tib. *yul sa*)

### 1.1 Tools for building construction

*bogdo* (Tibetan ramming tool used for ramming

*arga*) 63 bucksaw 206 chisel 177, 206

crowbar 208 *depam* (Tib. *sde pam*) iron hammer 212 pickaxe 212 sieve 75 two-men crosscut saw 210

### 5ൺඐൺඇൽൻඎංඅൽංඇආൺඍൾඋංൺඅඌ

2.1 Timber

2.1.1 English terms

cedar

 cedar Himalayan pencil cedar (J. excelsa or macropoda) 208 red cedar (Cedrela toona) 213 chestnut 167 F\SUHVV Himalayan maple (Acer oblongum) 212 Himalayan spruce (Picea smithiana) 213 juniper 167, 208, 212, 213 juniper (I) (J. communis) 212 Tibetan juniper (J. tibetica) 208, 213 mulberry 213 oak 167, 177, 212, 230 oak (I) (Q. incana or leucotricophora) 212 oak (II) (Q. dilatata) 212 palisander (Dalbergia sissoo) 210 poplar poplar (I) (P. balsamifera) 210 poplar (II) (P. euphratica) 210 poplar (III) (P. nigra) 210 poplar (IV) (P. alba) 210 willow 208, 210, 211, 224, 232, 257, 258 willow mat 208 white willow (S. alba) 210 willow (I) (S. daphnoides) 211 sal tree (Shorea robusta) 213 VLOYHU¿U (Abies pindrow) 212 walnut (Juglans regia) 211-213

white Himalayan birch (Betula utilis) 208 \HOORZ¿U pine 210, 212, 221, 244, 252 blue pine (P. excelsa or wallichiana) 210, 213, 244, 252 pine (I) (P. gerardiana or roxburghii) 221 2.1.2 Local terms *akhrot*, ĺZDOQXW *EƗQ*ĺRDN, *bhujpatra*ĺELUFK *biar,* ĺ *blue pine chilgoza,* ĺpine (I) *FKƯU*ĺSLQH,, *chung*ĺwhite willow *deodar* (*devdar*ĺFHGDU *GHYDGƗUX diar* ĺFHGDU *hodung*ĺSRSODU,, *kail*ĺEOXHSLQH *kelmang*ĺFHGDU *kelo* ĺFHGDU *lewar*ĺ+LPDOD\DQSHQFLOFHGDU *makkal*ĺSRSODU,,, *malchang*ĺZLOORZ, *mohru*ĺRDN,, *parong*ĺHimalayan maple *pavich,* ĺ *blue pine penma* (Tib. *spen ma*) 84 *rai*ĺHimalayan spruce

*VƗO*ĺVDOWUHH *safedar*ĺSRSODU,9

*shisham*ĺSDOLVDQGHU *shukpa*, ĺ+LPDOD\DQSHQFLOFHGDU *shukpa*SRZGHU *spun*ĺVLOYHU¿U *shur*, ĺ+LPDOD\DQSHQFLOFHGDU *thelu*ĺMXQLSHU, *toon*ĺUHGcedar *tosh*ĺVLOYHU¿U *yarpa*ĺSRSODU, *takpa*, ĺwhite Himalayan birch

2.1.3 Scientific terms

\$ELHVSLQGURZĺVLOYHU¿U \$FHUREORQJXPĺ+LPDOD\DQPDSOH %HWXODXWLOLVĺwhite Himalayan birch &HGUHODWRRQDĺUHGcedar &HGUXVGHRGDUDĺFHGDU 'DOEHUJLDVLVVRRĺSDOLVDQGHU -XJODQVUHJLDĺZDOQXW Juniperus Juniperus communisĺMXQLSHU, Juniperus excelsa, ĺ+LPDOD\DQSHQFLOFHGDU Juniperus macropoda, ĺ+LPDOSHQFLOFHGDU -XQLSHUXVWLEHWLFDĺ7LEHWDQMXQLSHU Picea smithiana, ĺHimalayan spruce Pinus 3LQXVH[FHOVDĺblue pine 3LQXVJHUDUGLDQDĺSLQH, Pinus roxburghiiĺSLQH, 3LQXVZDOOLFKLDQDĺblue pine Populus 3RSXOXVDOEDĺSRSODU,9 Populus balsamifera, ĺSRSODU, Populus nigraĺSRSODU,,, Populus euphratica, ĺSRSODU,, Quercus Quercus dilatata, ĺRDN,, 4XHUFXVLQFDQDĺRDN, 4XHUFXVOHXFRWULFRSKRUDĺRDN, Salix Salix albaĺwhite willow Salix daphnoidesĺZLOORZ, 6KRUHDUREXVWDĺVDOWUHH 7RRQDFLOLDWHĺUHGcedar

### 2.2 Organic materials

apricot 213, 216, 221, see also *chulli* and *sahare* juice of apricots 216 *burze* 61 *chulli* 215, 221, see also *sahare* deer skin 72 ¿EUHV JOXH *Dܒ܈DEDQGKD* (Skt.) 85 JUDVV *busho* grass (Ladakh) 84, 100 *jakses* (Ladakh) 123 *somaradza* (Tib. *so ma ra dza*) 84-86 *tsadrema* (Tib. *rtsa bre ma*) 84 gum 221 *lamak* (Tib. *la mag*) 72, 75 mustard oil 221 needles (as clay additives) 210, 216, 221 *pin yak kowa* (Tib. *spin g.yag ko ba*) 85 *pitchh* (term used in Chamba) 221 ULFHVWDUFKĺ*pitchh sahare* 221, see also *chulli* salt 221 *shugpa*SRZGHUĺXQGHU³7LPEHU´ VWUDZDVFOD\DGGLWLYHV 104, 107-114, 116, 118, 120-123, 125, *tsherma* (Tib. *tsher ma*) 60 twig (used for building construction) 53, 84, 85, 210, 216, 233, 234, 257, 258 *wanglag* (Tib. *dbang lag*) 85 \DNVNLQVHHDOVR*pin yak kowa* 2.3 Stones / Minerals / Mineral products *amolika* stone (in the Jokhang of Khorchag) 38 *arga* 216

basalt 215 FDOFLWH 

 *arga*URRI

225, 265 FKORULWH 221 clay schist 215 conglomerate 214, 215 crystalline rock 214, 215 GRORPLWH 134, 138, 157, 213 geological belts 206 JQHLVV JUDQLWH J\SVXP OLPH limestone 87, 213-216, 225 limestone paste 87, see also *ĞDUNDUƗ* marble 215 PHWDPRUSKLFVWRQH metasiltstone 214 PLFD 214, 215, 224 phyllite 214, 215 Portland cement 220 TXDUW] 151, 157, 214-216, 221-224 TXDUW]VFKLVW river stone 151, 206, 208, 260 salt 216, 221 sandstone 213-215 *ĞDUNDUƗ*6NWDOVRXVHGDV*ĞDUNDUƗNDOND*) 87 schist 214-216, 285 garnetiferous schists 215 sediments 214, 215, 220 *shado* (Tib. *zha rdo*) 72, 74 shale 214, 220, 225 *silbu* (Tib. *sil bu*) 61 siltstone 214 VODWH VWRQHJHQHUDO 

204, 206, 208, 213-217, 224-241, 244, 246, 250, 253, 255-270, 273, 275, 277, *thogdag* (Tib. *thog* ތ*dag*) 62 *toshug* (Tib. *tho shrug*) 61 volcanic rock 213, 215

### 2.4 Clay

*DQnjSD* (Skt.) 86 DULGFOD\ĺ*MƗ۪JDOƗ* bentonite 121, 220 *chik* clay (Jammu-Kangra) 220 *chit*FOD\.LQQDXU &OD\ 243, 246, 250, 255, 257, 260, 261, 263- FOD\PLQHUDODQDO\VLV FOD\PRGHOOLQJ clay mortar 173, 185, 186, 216, 220, 227, 234, 240, 243, 255, 257, 263, 275 FOD\RIKHUEVĺ*mendam* FOD\SLW FOD\VDPSOHV VDPSOHFRORXUV FOD\VFXOSWXUH FOD\VOXUU\ FOD\VWRYH 162, 216, 315-317, 333, 334, 345-347 clay wash 87 damp clay (used in Sanskrit literature) 86 ¿HOGFOD\ *damul*FOD\1RUWK3DNLVWDQ *dzasa* (Ladakh) 118-121, 123, 124, 126, 137, 138, 

 *duksa* clay (Spiti) 218, 222 ¿HOGFOD\ĺFOD\ *geru* clay (Chamba) 221 *golu* clay (Chamba) 218, 221, see also *makol* clay *MƗ۪JDOƗ* (Skt., used in Sanskrit literature) 86 *kalrun* clay (Kashmir) 220 *karewa* clay (Kashmir) 72, 220 *khusa* clay (Ladakh) 121 *kit-jan* clay (Chamba) 218, 221 *kum-mating* clay (Kinnaur) 218 *kyaka thigsa* (Tib. *skya ga thigs sa,* in the context of clay and bird observation) 61 lacustrine clay 220, 222, 224, 226 *losti* clay (Chamba) 218, 221 *PLĞUƗ*6NWW\SHRIDFOD\PL[WXUHXVHGLQ6DQVNULW literature) 86 *makol* clay (Chamba) 218, 221, see also *golu* clay *markalak*FOD\/DGDNK *mendam* (Tib. *VPDQҲGDP*, ) 85 PDVNPDGHRIFOD\ *nagtsi* (Tib. *nag rtsi*) 64 *narkalak*FOD\3XUDQJ SRWWHU\FOD\ĺSRWWHU\ *pödam* (Tib. *VSRVҲGDP*FOD\PL[WXUHXVHGLQ Lhasa) 86, 87 *sakalak*FOD\/DKDXO *ser* clay (Tib. *gser*) 70

*serdam ngenpa* (Tib. *gser ldam ngan pa*FOD\ mixture) 87 *sesa* (also *sersa*ĺ*dzasa shagdam* (Tib. *shag ҲGDP*FOD\PL[WXUHXVHGLQ/KDVD 135 *shaksa* (Spiti) 218, 222 *sho* clay (Chamba) 221 VOXUU\ĺFOD\VOXUU\ VZHOODEOHFOD\PLQHUDO 220, 222, 225 *talba*FOD\/DKDXO *thabsa* (Tib. *thab sa*) 315-318, 332-334, 345-347, 353-355 *thetsa* (Tib. *'phred sa*) *thigsa* (Tib. *thigs sa*)  *thigsa lensa* (Tib. *thigs sa len sa*) 62 *thogdag* (Tib. *thog* ތ*dag*) 62 *tsadam* (Tib. *UWVDҲGDP*FOD\PL[WXUHXVHGLQ Lhasa) 86, 87 *tsak* clay (Spiti) 218, 222, 225 *tua*FOD\.LQQDXU

### 1ൺආൾඌ

3.1 Places / Regions / Countries

Ankara 13, 167 \$E\DQHK,UDQ \$IJKDQLVWDQ Ahmedabad 176 Akhnur 78 Albania 13, 167, 177, 188 Akrotiri (Greece) 168 Alchi 40-42, 48-51, 80, 86, 232 Druggyeling 41 0DxMXĞUƯ/KDNKDQJ

 Gompa 40, 41 Kumbum Chorten 41 Shangrong 41 Sumtseg 86, 232, 248 Tsatsapuri 41 Yülkhor 41 Anantnag (Jammu and Kashmir) 214 Anatolia 166-168 Almora 214, 215 Arunachal Pradesh 172, 206 Asrang (Kinnaur) 201 \$VVDP

\$]DG-DPPXDQG.DVKPLU Baklog (Central Tibet) 70 %DOGDQ%HUHHYHQ0RQJROLD %DONDQV 185, 188 %DOWLVWDQ 243, 246, 255, 360 %DOWLW Bam (Iran) 61 Bameal-Dhun (Jammu) 220 %DUDE&HQWUDO7LEHW Baramulla (Jammu and Kashmir) 214 %DVJR 143, 145, 147, 156-162 0DLWUH\D/KDNKDQJ /KDNKDQJµFORVHWRWKHURDG¶ 340-342, 352 Serzang Lhakhang 128, 235 Bathua (Kullu) 224 Basantpur (Nepal) 174 %HQJDO Besham (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) 244 %KDUPDXU /DNৢDƗ'HYƯ7HPSOH %KXWDQ Bomdilla (Arunachal Pradesh) 172 Bulgaria 13, 177, 178, 360 Bursa (Turkey) 177 Caral (Peru) 163, 164 &KDPED'LVWULFW 211-216, 218, 221-224, 247, 248, 255, Chamba Town 212, 248, 281, 282 &KDPROL\*DUKZDO &KDQJR.LQQDXU Changtang 220 Charang (Kinnaur) 201 Chekha (Tib. Chad kha) 173, 186, 206, 226 Chakyung Babsa Tower 184 Chirar-e-Sharif (Kashmir) 1XQG5LVKL0RVTXH

&HQWUDO\$VLD Central China 55, 71 &HQWUDO7LEHW Chaini (Kullu) 256 &KKDWUDUKL&KDPED ĝDNWL'HYL7HPSOH Chhongthash (Leh District) 214 &KLJWDQ/DGDNK Chile 163 Chogro 7LE&RJUR3XUDQJ30, 31 Chitral (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) Chuchod (Central Tibet) 65 Chulling (Kinnaur) 218, 222, 261, 262, 361 Colombia 163 Costa Rica 163 Constantinople 166 Czech Republic 165 'HOKL Dalhousie (Chamba) 211, 212 Dhankar (Spiti) 223, 258, 361 Dharamsala 213 Doda (Jammu and Kashmir) 214 Dolno Lukovo (Bulgaria) 177, 178 Drag Yerpa 7LE%UDJ<HUSD&HQWUDO7LEHW61, 65 Dras (Ladakh) 201, 202, 215 Dreb (7LE6JUHEJURQJWVKRCentral Tibet) 86 Drompa Gyang (Tib. Grom pa rgyang) ĺ)RXU Horns East Europe 21 (DVW7LEHW )RQGXNLVWDQ Fortress tower \*RQGKOD Labrang 255, 270, 272, 273, 281 Wanla 234 Four Horns 27, 36 Tsang (Tib. Gtsang) 28 Tsang Dram 7LE\*WVDQJ¶JUDP 28 Drompa Gyang (Tib. Grom pa rgyang) 28 Gandhara 214 Garaich (Kullu) 224 \*DUKZDO

Garsha 30 Germany 164, 165 \*KDUZDO \*LOJLW \*LOJLW%DOWLVWDQ Gondhla (Lahaul) 187, 203, 206, 211, 255, 256, )RUWUHVVWRZHU \*UHDW%ULWDLQ Guge 30, 32, 33 Gumrang (Lahaul) 85-87, 257 Guru Ganthal (Lahaul) 255 Gyalti (Tib. Rgyal ti) 31 Gyama (Tib. Rgya ma) 26, 43 Gyamda 7LE5J\DPGD¶&RXQW\ \*\DWVR6K|O(Tib. Rgya mtsho zhol) Hajan Har (Kashmir) 220 +DQJUDQJ'LYLVLRQ.LQQDXU +DQNDU=DQJVNDU Hansa (Spiti) 258 +DU]HP&HQWUDO\$VLD Hatli (Kangra) 223 Herculaneum 165, 166 +LNNLP6SLWL Himachal Pradesh 7, 23, 71, 170, 171, 174-176, +XQ]D ,QGLD Indpur (Kangra) 223 Istanbul 166 Topkapi Palace 166 Ivanova (Bulgaria) 177 ,UDQ Jammu and Kashmir 7, 10, 72, 76, 88, 170, 171, 220, 282, 285 Johling (Lahaul) 256, 261 -RUGDQLD

Kalam (Kyber Pakhtunkhwa) 201, 204, 243-245, 248, 255, 360 Kalimpong (Darjeeling) 172 Kalpa (Kinnaur) 201, 203, 265, 268, 277, 278, 360 Kanam (Kinnaur) 33, 221, 265, 270, 275-277, 285 Kangyur Lhakhang 275-277 .DQJUD'LVWULFW 281, 282 Karla (Kinnaur) 248, 265, 267, 268, 270, 271, 273, .DUVKD=DQJVNDU Karub (Tibet) 71 .DVKPLU 170, 171, 174-176, 178-180, 183, 185- 227, 230, 231, 244, 248-250, 252-254, Kastoria (Macedonia) 163, 166 Kathmandu 51, 174 Kathua (Jammu and Kashmir) 214 Katra-Reasi (Udhampur District) 220 Katsel (Central Tibet) 27 Uru Katsel (Tib. Dbu ru Ka tshal) Temple 48, 51, 55, 65, 66 .D]D6SLWL 258, 360 Keris (Gilgit-Baltistan) 204, 360 Keru 7LE.HUX&HQWUDO7LEHW Keshtagrom (Nuristan) 244 .H\ORQJ/DKDXO 255-257, 282, 360, 361 Khajan (Kangra) 223 Khaplu (Gilgit-Baltistan) 201, 204, 243, 255, 360 .KDUPDJ\*LOJLW%DOWLVWDQ Kharshali (Uttarakhand) 186 Khartse (Ngari) 32, 37 Old Khartse 36, 37 Khorchag (Purang) 15, 33-35, 43, 51, 52, 57, 184, Jokhang 68, 85, 88, 264 Jowo silver statue 34 Lhakhang Chenmo 34, 52, 57, 264 .KRUH]Pĺ+DU]HP

Khuch (Gujarat) 176 .K\EHU3DNKWXQNKZD .LQQDXU 206, 208, 211-216, 218, 221-224, 247- 361 Lower Kinnaur 203, 260, 261 Middle Kinnaur 8, 203, 221, 247, 248, 253, Upper Kinnaur 8, 57, 171, 183, 201, 203, 206, 360 Kioto (Spiti) 222 Kothar (Kangra) 223 Kothi (Kinnaur) 265, 267 Koti banal (Uttarakhand) 8, 275 Kullu District 8, 171, 175, 176, 201, 203, 211, 215, .XPDRQ Kungri (Spiti) 218, 223, 361 .XQXĺSURWHFWLQJWHPSOH Kyaru (Tib. Skya ru) 32, castle of Kyaru Kyilkhor ding (Tib. *dkyil 'khor steng*) 36 Kyilung 7LE6N\LGOXQJ&HQWUDO7LEHW Labrang (Kinnaur) 255, 265, 267, 268, 270, 272, Fortress tower 255, 270, 272, 273, 281 Lachania (Jammu and Kashmir) 250 /DGDNK 141, 143, 161, 162, 171, 181, 183, 184, /DKDXO 224, 230, 253, 254, 257-262, 281-284, 

/DOXQJ6SLWL

Lamayuru (Ladakh) 220 Lefkas (Greece) 178 /HK 230, 232, 234, 235, 243, 248, 255, 264, 360 /HPSD&HQWUDO7LEHW /KDVD *barkor* (Tib. *bar skor* -RNKDQJ 68, 85, 88, 264 Jowo Lhakhang 45, 46 /KDVD0DঌDOD 0DUSRUL Ramoche Lhakhang 48-50 Shide Lhakhang 173 Lhatse 7LE/KDUWVH&HQWUDO7LEHW28 Lhundrup County (Central Tibet) 62 Lidang (Spiti) 222 /LNLU 336, 347-350, 355 Lima (Peru) 164 Lippa (Kinnaur) 201, 265, 273 /R7DJWVH&RXQW\Tib. Stag rtse) Losar (Spiti) 201, 214, 258 /XFNQRZ Manali 143, 201, 203, 255, 281, 282, 360 Old Manali 282 Hadimba Temple 255, 282 Vashist 282 Mandi District 224 Mandriza (Bulgaria) 177, 187, 188, 241, 360 Maryul (Tib. Mar yul) 30, 33 0HGLWHUUDQHDQUHJLRQ 0HGURJRQJNDU Mingora (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) 202, 243 Minimarg (Kashmir) 201 Mohenjodaro 246 Mona (Kinnaur) 33 0RQJROLD Moorang (Kinnaur) 201, 218, 221, 222, 361 Muning (Central Tibet) 72

0XVWDQJ 0X]D൵DUDEDG\$]DG-DPPXDQG.DVKPLU Naggar (Kullu) 282 1DNR 253, 255, 260-262, 264, 265, 360 Upper Temple 186, 260, 261 1DUDQDJ.DVKPLU 1H/DGDNK Negi Nal (Kullu) 224 1HSDO 211, 264 1JDUL Ngari Korsum 32, 35 Nicaragua 163 Nixi (Yunnan) 71, 72, 77 1RUWK\$IULFD 1RUWK3DNLVWDQ 227, 230, 243-248, 253, 260, 267, 270, 1XULVWDQ 1\DUPD see also *tsuglagkhang* Temple VIa 233 Nyemo 7LE6Q\HPR&HQWUDO7LEHW 65, 76, 77, 87 Nyisung 7LE1\LE]XQJ3XUDQJ31, 32ĺHDUO\ West Tibetan Period 3DGXP=DQJVNDU Paliana (Kangra) 223 Pampur (Kashmir) 248, 253, 254 Pekhar (Ngari) 32 3DJDP&KDPQ\|Q/LQJ(Tib. Pa sgam byams snyoms gling) 32 Peru 163, 164 3HWUD-RUGDQLD 4DVUHO%LQW 3KHQSR&HQWUDO7LEHW 3KXJWDO=DQJVNDU Phyang (Ladakh) 202-204, 230, 236, 237, 360 Pompeii 165 Diomedes Villa 165 Poo (Kinnaur) 33, 201, 260 Poonch (Jammu and Kashmir) 214

Portugal 163, 178 Pulwana District 72 Punjab 210, 211 3XUDQJ Purthi (Chamba) 203, 218, 221, 281, 282, 285, 286, 360, 361 Quedlinburg (Germany) 165 Rajouri (Jammu and Kashmir) 214 Rala Khamar (Tib. Ra la mkhar dmar) 31 Ralang (Sikkim) 172 Rampur Rampur Division 8, 281 Rampur Town 203, 211, 265, 267, 360 5DQJULN6SLWL Rekong Peo (Kinnaur) 203, 212, 265, 267, 277, 360 5HVKXL(DVW7LEHW 5LEED /RWVƗED/KDNKDQJ 277, 281, 283, 287, 301-304, 325-327, 338-340, 351 5RPDQLD 5RPH5RPDQHPSLUHDUFKLWHFWXUH Ronchung area (Kinnaur) 34 5RSD.LQQDXU Rumtek (Sikkim) 172 Rumyül (Tib. Rum yul) 32 Rupshu (Changtang) 220 6DIUDQEROX7XUNH\ 360 Sainj (Shimla District) 277 6DP\H&HQWUDO7LEHW VHHDOVR*tsuglagkhang* Sangla (Kinnaur) 201, 215 Sangnam (Spiti) 206, 218, 223, 258 Santorin (Greece) 168 Sarahan (Shimla District) 208, 256, 267, 281 %KƯPƗ.ƗOƯ7HPSOH Saspol (Lahaul) 233, 236 Satingri (Lahaul) 257 6D]ƯQKhyber Pakhtunkhwa) 204, 360 Sera (Central Tibet) 65

Serme 7LE6DVPDGCentral Tibet) 65 6JDQJ/DGDNKVHHDOVR&KLJWDQ Shani Maharaj (Uttarakhand) 186 Serkhar Tsuglagkhang (Tib. Gser mkhar gtsug lag khang) 34, see also *tsuglagkhang* 6KHONKDU.LQQDXU


Shahpur (Kangra) 223

Sher (Purang) 34

Shey (Ladakh) 161

Shigar (Gilgit-Baltistan) 6KLJDWVH&HQWUDO7LEHW


Thangi (Kinnaur) 201, 218, 221, 222, 265, 273- 275, 281, 361 7KLNVH/DGDNK 7KROLQJVHHDOVR *tsuglagkhang lingshi* (Tib. *gling bzhi*) 47 Tikri (Kashmir) 220 Timogang (Ladakh) 235 7LQJUDW/DKDXO 7|OXQJ7LE6WRGOXQJ&HQWUDO7LEHW 62 Triloknath (Lahaul) 212 Tsang (Tib. Gtsang)ĺ)RXU+RUQV Tsang Dram 7LE\*WVDQJ¶JUDPĺ)RXU+RUQV Tsawagang (Purang) 33 Tshestho Gyari (Tib. Rtse tho rgya ri) 31 Tsangthog (Central Tibet) 70 7XQOXQJ/DGDNK 332, 333, 345, 346, 353, 354, 356 7XUNH\ 373 Udaipur (Lahaul) 175, 186, 201, 203, 212, 281- 0LUNXOƗ'HYƯ7HPSOH Udhampur (Jammu and Kashmir) 213, 214, 220 Ulaan Kherem (Monglia) Unteruhldingen (Germany) 164 Uruguay 163 Ushkar (Afghanistan) 78 Uttarakhand 8, 70, 171, 74-76, 86, 201, 211, 213, Uttarbaini (Jammu) 220 8WWDUNDVKL8WWDUDNKDQG


 Historical Western Tibet (also early West Tibet) 14, 31-33, 37, 46, 48, 53 Wuyan (Kashmir) 220 Xianrendong (Central China) 72 Yuchanyan (cave of) 72 Yudra 7LE\*\XVJUDWHPSOHRI 31 =DQJVNDU 255, 281 3.2 Mountains / Rivers / Passes Ba Valley (Central Tibet) 72 Bhaga River 203, 256, 283 Black Sea 167 Chandrabhaga (Chandra River) 203, 211, 215, 255, 283 Chenab Valley 255, 286 'DUHO9DOOH\1RUWK3DNLVWDQ Dogde (Tib. Dog sde) Valley 65 Ganges River 87, 211 Greater Himalaya 213 \*UHHFH Gyundi Sub-valley (Spiti) 214 ,QGXV5LYHU 225, 230, 236, 243 -KHOXP5LYHU Kailas 43 .KDQEDUL9DOOH\1RUWK3DNLVWDQ Kunar Valley (Khyber Pakthunkhwa) 243 Kyichu (Tib. Skyid chu) River 26, 65 Karakorum 206, 213, 215, 224 Kathmandu Valley 174 Lake Constance 163 Lesser Himalaya 206, 214, 215 Manasarowar Lake 216 Mapcha River (also Peacock River) 31 Markha Valley 201 Mount Sumeru (ideological mountain) 38 0XNWLQDWK9DOOH\ Murree Formation, or Murrees 215 Nubra Valley 210 1\DQJFKX5LYHU(DVW7LEHW Pin Valley 222

Ravi Valley 212, 285, 286 Shiwalik Hills 206, 213, 215 6K\RN5LYHU Sutlej Valley 33, 51, 67, 73, 211, 212, 216, 264, 265, 267, 273, 277 6ZDW9DOOH\ Tangir Valley (North Pakistan) 247 Tower of Dost Mohammad 247 Taurus Mountains 167 Transhimalaya 171, 206, 210, 213, 215 Tso Kar (Changtang) 220 Vitasta River 210 Yamuna River 210, 213, 225, 275 =RML/D

### 3.3 Persons / Families

Chiwang Namgyel (Tib. Mkhar rtse phyi dbang rnam rgyal) 32 'UDJSD%XP7LE\*UDJVSDEXP235, 236 Dro 7LE¶%URFODQ 31, 32 Gupta 143, 214 Ja Chekhapa Yeshe Dorje 7LE%\D¶&KDGNKDSD Ye shes rdo rje) 227 -XOLXV&DHVDU Khore (Tib. Khor re) 31, 34 Khorkyong 7LE¶.KRUVN\RQJ32 King Jayasimha (Kashmir) 167 .LQJ/DOLWƗGLW\D.DVKPLU .\LGH1LPDJ|Q(Tib. Skyid lde Nyi ma mgon) 30-32 0DUTXLVRI3RPEDO3RUWXJDO Meruvarman (Chamba) 176 Namri Songtsen (Tib. Gnam ri Srong btsan) 43 Pal Chenpo (Tib. Dpal chen po) 26 Rinchen Sangpo (Tib. Rin chen bzang po) 31, 33 Song nge (Tib. Srong nge) 32 Songtsen Gampo (Tib. Srong btsan sgam po) 27, 7DVKLJ|Q(Tib. Bkra shis mgon) 31, 32 Tímúr the Tátár (Kashmir) 167 Tunga (Kashmir) 175 Trisong Detsen 7LE.KULVURQJOGH¶XEWVDQ28 Trisong Tsungtsen (Tib. Khri sde srong btsug btsan) 32

Vitruvius 165 Yeshe Ö (Tib. Ye shes) 31-33, 35, 265

### 3.4 Religious figures

'ƯSDূNDUD Dorje Chenmo 33 Maitreya 31, 35, 54 ĝDN\DPXQL Tara 81, 87 Vairocana 30, 37, 47 <DPƗQWDND

### 3.5 Population groups

Aryans 171 Bhutia 172 \*DGGL \*XMMDU Khash 171, 174, 175 Lepcha 172 Newar 174, 176, 182, 184, 186-188, 224 2WWRPDQV

8LIQERYEPTVSHYGXMSRSJSFNIGXWERHFYMPHMRKWWMKRM½GERXP]WLETIWXLIQEXIVMEPGYPXYVISJ societies. Knowledge concerning the ideal properties of materials obtained from nature, techniques of processing raw materials, and the skills needed to manufacture certain TVSHYGXWLEZIFIIRTEWWIHHS[RJVSQKIRIVEXMSRXSKIRIVEXMSRSZIVXLIGIRXYVMIW1ER] FYMPHMRKWEW[IPPEWSFNIGXWMRHEMP]YWI[LMGL[IGSRWMHIVGYPXYVEPLIVMXEKIXSHE]LEZI XLIMVSVMKMRMRXLIWOMPPWSJGVEJXW[S
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8LIWSGMEPWXEXYWSJQEXIVMEPWERHTVSGIWWMRKQIXLSHWGERHMJJIVKVIEXP]FIX[IIRWSGMIXMIW 8LMWFSSOJSGYWIWSR&YHHLMWXEVGLMXIGXYVIMRXLI,MQEPE]EW[LIVIXLIEYXLSVLEWFIIR GSRHYGXMRK VIWIEVGL JSV SZIV ]IEVW 'IVXEMR FILEZMSYVEP TEXXIVRW WYGL EW VMXYEPP] [EPOMRKEVSYRHXLITIVMQIXIVSJVIPMKMSYWFYMPHMRKWERHSFNIGXWVIMRJSVGIXLIMVW]QFSPMG ZEPYI MR XLI VIWTIGXMZI GSQQYRMX]8LIWIQIERMRKW MR XYVR EVIQEHI XERKMFPI XLVSYKL GIVXEMRQEXIVMEPWWLETIWGSPSYVWSVXI\XYVIWYWIHMRXLIFYMPHMRKWXLIQWIPZIW


8LI ,MQEPE]ER VIKMSR MW MHIEP JSV XLMW VIWIEVGL HYI XS MXW HMZIVWI REXYVEP GSRHMXMSRW Different altitudes, topographies, vegetation, climatic and geological conditions have WLETIHFYMPHMRKERHGVEJXXVEHMXMSRWEGVSWWXLMWVIKMSR8LMWFSSOGPIEVP]WLS[WXLIMRXIV-GSRRIGXMZMX]FIX[IIRREXYVEPGSRHMXMSRWERHVIKMSREPFYMPHMRKERHGVEJXXVEHMXMSRWEW[IPP EWXLIMVGSQFMRIHMR¾YIRGISRQEXIVMEPGYPXYVIMRXLI,MQEPE]EW

,YFIVX \*IMKPWXSVJIV MW VIWIEVGLIV EX XLI -RWXMXYXI JSV 7SGMEP%RXLVSTSPSK] EX XLI%YWXVMER %GEHIQ]SJ7GMIRGIWMR:MIRRE